Genocides in history (after World War II)

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==Post-World War II==
The CPPCG was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). After the necessary 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on 12 January 1951. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over four decades.

===Post–World War II Central and Eastern Europe===

====Ethnic cleansing of Germans====

[[File:Vertreibung.jpg|thumb|[[Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia]]]]
After WWII ended, about 11-12 million<ref name=Weber2>Jürgen Weber, Germany, 1945–1990: A Parallel History, Central European University Press, 2004, p. 2, </ref><ref name=Kacowicz100/><ref name=Schuck156>Peter H. Schuck, Rainer Münz, Paths to Inclusion: The Integration of Migrants in the United States and Germany, Berghahn Books, 1997, p. 156, </ref> Germans were forced to flee from or were expelled from several countries throughout Eastern and Central Europe including [[Volga Germans|Russia]], [[Romania]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Yugoslavia]] and the prewar territory of Poland. A large number of them were also displaced when Germany's former eastern provinces either passed to [[Soviet Russia]] or became [[Recovered Territories|again]] part of Poland in accordance with the [[Potsdam Agreement]] (Poland lost these territories in various periods over several centuries), regardless of those lands being under heavy German ethnic and cultural influence since the German colonization in the [[Ostsiedlung|Late Middle Ages]] or [[Drang nach Osten|19th century]], and under German rule since the conquests and expansion of [[Margraviate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]. The majority of these expelled and displaced Germans ended up in what remained of Germany, with some being sent to [[West Germany]] and others being sent to [[East Germany]].
The ethnic cleansing of the Germans was the largest [[population transfer|displacement]] of a single European population in [[Modern Era|modern history]].<ref name=Weber2/><ref name="Kacowicz100">Arie Marcelo Kacowicz, Pawel Lutomski, Population resettlement in international conflicts: a comparative study, Lexington Books, 2007, p. 100, : "... largest movement of European people in modern history" [https://www.google.com/books?id=ovck_g0xwX0C&pg=PA103&dq=expulsion+germans+poland&lr=&as_brr=3#PPA100,M1]</ref> Estimates for the total number of those who died during the removals range from 500,000 to 2,000,000, where the higher figures include "unsolved cases" of persons reported as missing and presumed dead. Many German civilians were sent to internment and labor camps as well, where they often died. The events are usually classified as either a [[population transfer]],<ref>
''Europe and German unification'', Renata Fritsch-Bournazel p. 77, Berg Publishers 1992</ref> or an ethnic cleansing.<ref> Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
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*</ref><ref>
*</ref><ref> [https://ift.tt/3pao9o7 pp.&nbsp;56, 60–61]
*}}</ref> [[Felix Ermacora]], among a minority of legal scholars, equated ethnic cleansing with genocide,<ref>[https://ift.tt/1d8cY4d European Court of Human Rights] – [https://ift.tt/36655Qi Jorgic v. Germany Judgment], 12 July 2007. § 47 Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref></ref> and stated that the expulsion of the Germans therefore constituted genocide.<ref></ref>

=== Partition of India ===

The '''Partition of India''' was the [[Partition (politics)|partition]] of the [[British Indian Empire]]<ref>The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan by Yasmin Khan</ref> that led to the creation of the [[sovereign state]]s of the [[Dominion of Pakistan]] (which later split into [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]) and the [[Dominion of India]] (later the [[History of the Republic of India|Republic of India]]) on 15 August 1947. During the Partition, one of British India's greatest provinces, the [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], was split along communal lines into [[Punjab, Pakistan|West Punjab]] and [[East Punjab]] (later split into the three separate modern-day Indian states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). West Punjab was formed out of the Muslim majority districts of the former British Indian [[Punjab Province (British India)|Punjab Province]], while [[East Punjab]] was formed out of the Hindu and Sikh majority districts of the former province.
[[File:Vultures and corpses in the street of Calcutta, 1946.jpg|thumb|Corpses in the street of [[Calcutta]] after the [[Direct Action Day]] in 1946]]
Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs who had co-existed for a millennium attacked each other in what is argued to be a retributive genocide<ref name="Brass2003"></ref> of horrific proportions, accompanied by arson, looting, rape and abduction of women. The Indian government claimed that 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women were abducted, and the Pakistani government claimed that 50,000 Muslim women were abducted during riots. By 1949, there were governmental claims that 12,000 women had been recovered in India and 6,000 women had been recovered in Pakistan.<ref name="Visweswaran2011"></ref> By 1954 there were 20,728 recovered Muslim women and 9,032 Hindu and Sikh women recovered from Pakistan.<ref name="MenonBhasin1998"></ref>

This partition triggered off what was one of the world's largest mass migrations in modern history.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Around 11.2 million people successfully crossed the India-West Pakistan border, mostly through the Punjab. 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs from West Pakistan arrived in India. However many people went missing.

A study of the total population inflows and outflows in the districts of the Punjab, using the data provided by the 1931 and 1951 Census has led to an estimate of 1.26 million missing Muslims who left western India but did not reach Pakistan.<ref name="EPW">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The corresponding number of missing Hindus/Sikhs along the western border is estimated to be approximately 0.84 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008">Bharadwaj, Prasant; Khwaja, Asim; Mian, Atif (30 August 2008). "The Big March: Migratory Flows after the Partition of India" (PDF). ''Economic & Political Weekly'': 43. Retrieved 16/01/2016</ref> This puts the total number of missing people due to Partition-related migration along the Punjabi border at around 2.23 million.<ref name="Bharadwaj, Prasant 2008" />

Nisid Hajari, in "Midnight’s Furies" (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt) wrote:<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><blockquote>Gangs of killers set whole villages aflame, hacking to death men and children and the aged while carrying off young women to be raped. Some British soldiers and journalists who had witnessed the Nazi death camps claimed Partition’s brutalities were worse: pregnant women had their breasts cut off and babies hacked out of their bellies; infants were found literally roasted on spits."</blockquote>By the time the violence had subsided, Hindus and Sikhs had been completely wiped out of Pakistan's West Punjab and similarly Muslims were completely wiped out of India's East Punjab.<ref name="Brass2003"/>

Partition also affected other areas of the subcontinent besides the Punjab. Anti-Hindu riots took place in Hyderabad, [[Sindh|Sind.]] On 6 January anti-Hindu riots broke out in Karachi, leading to an estimate of 1100 casualties.<ref name="Bhavnani"></ref> 776,000 Sindhi Hindus fled to India.<ref></ref>

Anti-Muslim riots also rocked Delhi. According to Gyanendra Pandey's recent account of the Delhi violence between 20,000 and 25,000 Muslims in the city lost their lives.<ref></ref> Tens of thousands of Muslims were driven to refugee camps regardless of their political affiliations and numerous historic sites in Delhi such as the Purana Qila, Idgah and Nizamuddin were transformed into refugee camps. At the culmination of the tensions in Delhi 330,000 Muslims were forced to flee the city to Pakistan. The 1951 Census registered a drop of the Muslim population in Delhi from 33.22% in 1941 to 5.33% in 1951.<ref></ref> Meanwhile, as a result of the [[Noakhali riots]] and Direct Action Day, Hindus in Bangladesh dwindled from 28% in the 1940s to a mere 9% in 2011.<ref>[[Hinduism in Bangladesh#Demographics]]</ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) During the Noakhali riots, more than 5,000 were massacred in eight days and there were reports of numerous forced conversions, arson, abduction and rape by the Bangladeshi local Muslim population.

=== Since 1951 ===
The CPPCG was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). After the necessary 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on 12 January 1951.<ref name="CPPCG" /> At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over four decades.

====Australia====

Sir [[Ronald Wilson]] was once the president of Australia's Human Rights Commission. He stated that Australia's program in which 20–25,000 Aboriginal children were forcibly separated from their natural families<ref name="RM-The-Age">Manne, Robert [https://ift.tt/2NlbsbM "The cruelty of denial"], ''[[The Age]]'', 9 September 2006</ref> was genocide, because it was intended to cause the Aboriginal people to die out. The program ran from 1900 to 1969.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The nature and extent of the removals have been disputed within Australia, with opponents questioning the findings contained in the Commission report and asserting that the size of the [[Stolen Generation]] had been exaggerated. The intent and effects of the government policy were also disputed.<ref name="RM-The-Age"/>

====Zanzibar====
In 1964, towards the end of the [[Zanzibar Revolution]]—which led to the overthrow of the [[Sultan of Zanzibar]] and his mainly Arab government by local African revolutionaries—[[John Okello]] claimed in radio speeches to have killed or imprisoned tens of thousands of the Sultan's "enemies and stooges",<ref name="parsons107"></ref> but estimates of the number of deaths vary greatly, from "hundreds" to 20,000. The New York Times and other Western newspapers gave figures of 2–4,000;<ref name="nyt19jan">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="latimes">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> the higher numbers possibly were inflated by Okello's own broadcasts and exaggerated media reports.<ref name="parsons107"/> The killing of Arab prisoners and their burial in [[mass grave]]s was documented by an Italian film crew, filming from a helicopter, in ''[[Africa Addio]]''.<ref>[[Gualtiero Jacopetti|Jacopetti, Gualtiero]] (Director). (1970)</ref> Many [[Arabs]] fled to safety in [[Oman]] and by Okello's order no Europeans were harmed. The violence did not spread to [[Pemba Island|Pemba]]. [[Leo Kuper]] described the killing of Arabs in Zanzibar as genocide.<ref>Israel W. Charny. ''Encyclopedia of Genocide'', ABC-CLIO, 1999 cites ''Genocide:Its Political Use in the 20th Century'', London: Penguin Books, 1981; New Haven, Connecticut:Yale University Press 1982.</ref>

====Nigeria====
=====Biafra (1966-1970)=====

After [[Nigeria]] gained its independence from British rule in 1960, stigma towards the [[Igbo people|Igbo ethnic group]] of the east increased. When a supposedly [[1966 Nigerian coup d'état|Igbo led coup]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> overthrew and murdered senior government officials, the other ethnic groups of Nigeria, particularly the [[Hausa people|Hausa]], launched a massive anti-Igbo campaign. This campaign began with the [[1966 anti-Igbo pogrom]] and the [[1966 Nigerian counter-coup]]. In the pogrom, Igbo property was destroyed and up to 300,000 Igbos fled the North and sought safety in the East and about 30,000 Igbos were killed. In the counter-coup that followed, Igbo civilians and military personnel were also systematically murdered.<ref></ref> On 30 May 1967, when the Igbos declared their independence from Nigeria and formed the breakaway state of [[Biafra]], the Nigerian and British governments<ref name="pambazuka.org"></ref> launched a total blockade of Biafra. Initially on the offensive, [[Biafra]] began to suffer and its government frequently had to move because the Nigerian army kept on conquering its capital cities. The main cause of death was [[starvation]], and children suffered the most. Children were often afflicted with [[Kwashiorkor]], a disease caused by [[malnutrition]]. The people resorted to [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]] on many occasions.<ref>http://www.nigerianwatch.com/former-biafran-commander-ben-guile-reveals-ndigbo-resorted-to-cannibalism-during-civil-war/Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The documentation of the suffering of the Igbo children is attributed to the work of the [[French Red Cross]] and other Christian organisations. There are many estimates for the death toll of the Igbo in the genocide. The number of soldiers who were killed in the war is estimated to be 100,000 and the number of civilians who were also killed ranges from 500,000 to 3.5 million. More than half of those who died in the war were children.<ref name="pambazuka.org"/> Currently, Nigeria still suppresses peaceful protests by Biafra independence hopefuls, often by sending soldiers to beat protestors and even to kill them.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

=====Boko Haram and Fulani Herdsman (1999 - present) =====

Since the turn of the 21st century, 62,000 [[Christianity in Nigeria|Nigerian Christians]] have been killed by the terrorist group [[Boko Haram]], [[Fulani herdsmen]] and other groups.<ref></ref><ref></ref> The killings have been referred to as a silent genocide.<ref></ref><ref></ref>

====Algeria====
===== Sétif and Guelma =====
The [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]] was a series of attacks by French colonial authorities and [[pied-noir]] settler militias on Algerian civilians in 1945 around the market town of [[Sétif]], west of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], in [[French Algeria]]. French police fired on demonstrators at a protest on 8 May 1945.<ref></ref> Riots in the town were followed by attacks on French settlers (''colons'') in the surrounding countryside, resulting in 102 deaths. Subsequent attacks by the French colonial authorities and European settlers killed between 6,000 and 30,000 Muslims in the region. The words used to refer to the events are often instrumentalized or carry a memorial connotation. The word ''massacre'', currently applied in historical research to the Muslim Algerian victims of May 1945, was first used in French propaganda in reference to the 102 European colonial settler victims; apparently to justify the French suppression.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The word ''genocide'', used by Bouteflika<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> for example, does not apply to the events in Guelma, since the Algerian victims there were reportedly targeted because of their nationalist activism; which might make the Guelma massacre a [[Definitions of politicide|politicide]] according to B. Harff and Ted R. Gurr's definition.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The term ''massacre'' is, according to [[Jacques Sémelin]] a more useful methodological tool for historians to study an event whose definition is debated.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

===== Harkis =====

After independence was gained after the [[Algerian War]] the [[Harkis]] ([[Muslims]] who supported the French during the war) were seen as traitors by many Algerians, and many of those who stayed behind suffered severe reprisals after independence. French historians estimate that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 [[Harkis]] and members of their families were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, often in atrocious circumstances or after torture.<ref name="Horne 537"></ref>

====Cambodia (1975–1979)====
[[File:Photos of victims in Tuol Sleng prison (2).JPG|thumb|Rooms of the [[Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum]] contain thousands of photos of victims which were taken by the Khmer Rouge.]]

In [[Cambodia]] between 1975 and 1979, a [[genocide]] was committed by the [[Khmer Rouge]] (KR) [[Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia|regime]] in which an estimated 1.5 to 3 million people died. The KR group and its leader [[Pol Pot]] renamed [[Cambodia]] [[Democratic Kampuchea]] and they also wanted to transform Cambodia into an [[Agrarian socialism|agrarian socialist]] society which would be governed according to the ideals of [[Stalinism]] and [[Maoism]]. The KR's policies which included the forced relocation of the Cambodian population from urban centers to rural areas, [[torture]], mass executions, the use of [[forced labor]], [[malnutrition]], and [[disease]] caused the death of an estimated 25 percent of Cambodia's total population (around 2 million people). The genocide ended following the [[Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia]]. Since then, at least 20,000 mass graves, known as the [[Killing Fields]], have been uncovered.

====Guatemala (1981–1983)====

[[File:Memorial Rio Negro.jpg|thumb|Memorial to the victims of the [[Río Negro massacres]]]]
During the [[Guatemalan civil war]], between 140,000 and 200,000 people are estimated to have died and more than one million people fled their homes and hundreds of villages were destroyed. The officially chartered [[Historical Clarification Commission]] attributed more than 93% of all documented human rights violations to U.S.–supported Guatemala's military government; and estimated that [[Maya peoples|Maya]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] accounted for 83% of the victims.<ref>[https://ift.tt/2LWpKiS Press conference by members of the Guatemala Historical Clarification Commission], United Nations website, 1 March 1999
* Staff. [https://ift.tt/2Mb7aTT Guatemala 'genocide' probe blames state], [[BBC]], 25 February 1999.</ref> Although the war lasted from 1960 to 1996, the Historical Clarification Commission concluded that genocide might have occurred between 1981 and 1983, when the government and guerrilla had the fiercest and bloodiest combats and strategies, especially in the oil-rich area of [[Ixcán]] on the northern part of [[Quiché Department|Quiché]]. The total numbers of killed or "[[Forced disappearance#Guatemala|disappeared]]" was estimated to be around 200,000,<ref>[https://ift.tt/2YctzCR The Secrets in Guatemala’s Bones]. ''[[The New York Times]].'' 30 June 2016.</ref> although this is an extrapolation that was done by the Historical Clarification Commission based on the cases that they documented, and there were no more than 50,000. The commission also found that U.S. corporations and government officials "exercised pressure to maintain the country's archaic and unjust socio-economic structure," and that the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] backed illegal counterinsurgency operations.<ref>[https://ift.tt/300Q2Se Guatemalan Army Waged 'Genocide,' New Report Finds]. ''The New York Times.'' 26 February 1999.</ref>

[[File:RIOS M genocida 07Apr06.JPG|thumb|[[Efraín Ríos Montt]] was found guilty of genocide]]
In 1999, Nobel peace prize winner [[Rigoberta Menchú]] brought a case against the military leadership in a Spanish Court. Six officials, among them [[Efraín Ríos Montt]] and [[Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores]], were formally charged on 7 July 2006 to appear in the Spanish National Court after Spain's Constitutional Court ruled in 2005 that Spanish courts could exercise [[universal jurisdiction]] over war crimes committed during the [[Guatemalan Civil War]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> In May 2013, Rios Montt was found guilty of genocide for killing 1,700 indigenous [[Ixil people|Ixil]] Mayans during 1982–83 by a Guatemalan court and sentenced to 80 years in prison.<ref>Castillo, Mariano (13 May 2013). [https://ift.tt/2uPcIpN Guatemala's Rios Montt guilty of genocide]. [[CNN]]. Retrieved 17 May 2013.</ref> However, on 20 May 2013, the [[Constitutional Court of Guatemala]] overturned the conviction, voiding all proceedings back to 19 April and ordering that the trial be "reset" to that point, pending a dispute over the recusal of judges.<ref name=Reuters>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=Guardian>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Ríos Montt's trial was supposed to resume in January 2015,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> but it was suspended after a judge was forced to recuse herself.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Doctors declared Ríos Montt unfit to stand trial on 8 July 2015, noting that he would be unable to understand the charges brought against him.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====Bangladesh Liberation War Genocide of 1971====

An academic consensus holds that the events that took place during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] constituted [[1971 Bangladesh genocide|genocide]].<ref name=Payaslian></ref> During the nine-month-long conflict an estimated 300,000 to 3 million people were killed and the Pakistani armed forces raped between 200,000–400,000 Bangladeshi women and girls in an act of [[genocidal rape]].<ref name=Sharlach></ref>

A 2008 study estimated that up to 269,000 civilians died in the conflict; the authors noted that this is far higher than two earlier estimates.<ref>Obermeyer, Ziad, et al., [https://ift.tt/1eDupdw "Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme"], ''British Medical Jornal,'' June 2008.</ref>

[[File:Protest against War Crimes at Shahabag Square (8459696133).jpg|thumb|[[2013 Shahbag protests]] demanding the death penalty for the war criminals of the 1971 war]]

A case was filed in the Federal Court of Australia on 20 September 2006 for alleged war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide during 1971 by the Pakistani Armed Forces and its collaborators:<ref name="SYG_2672_2006">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>



On 21 May 2007, at the request of the applicant the case was discontinued.<ref>This judgement can be found via the [https://ift.tt/39UsOE1 Federal Court of Australia home page] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) by following the links and using SYG/2672/2006 as the key for the database</ref>

====Burundi in 1972 and 1993====

After [[Burundi]] gained its independence in 1962, two events occurred which were labeled genocide. The first event was the mass-killing of [[Hutu]]s by the [[Tutsi]] army in 1972<ref name="BowenFreeman1973"></ref> and the second event was the killing of Tutsis by the Hutu population in 1993 which was recognized as an act of genocide in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented to the [[United Nations Security Council]] in 2002.<ref name="ICIBFR-496">[https://ift.tt/3qQsWeR International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi: Final Report] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) Source Name: United Nations Security Council, S/1996/682; received from Ambassador Thomas Ndikumana, Burundi Ambassador to the United States, Date received: 7 June 2002. Paragraph 496.</ref>

====North Korea====

Several million people in [[North Korea]] have died of [[North Korean famine|starvation since the mid-1990s]], with aid groups and human rights [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] often stating that the [[Government of North Korea|North Korean government]] has systematically and deliberately prevented food aid from reaching the areas which are most devastated by food shortages.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> An additional one million people have died in [[Kwalliso|North Korea's political prison camps]], which are used to detain dissidents and their entire families, including children, for perceived political offences.<ref name="wapo1103">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

In 2004, Yad Vashem called on the international community to investigate "political genocide" in North Korea.<ref name="wapo1103"/>

In September 2011, a ''Harvard International Review'' article argued that the North Korean government was violating the UN Genocide Convention by systematically killing half-Chinese babies and members of religious groups.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> North Korea's Christian population, which was considered to be the center of [[Christianity]] in [[East Asia]] in 1945 and included 25–30% of the inhabitants of [[Pyongyang]], has been systematically massacred and persecuted; as of 2012 50,000–70,000 Christians were imprisoned in North Korea's concentration camps.<ref>Park, Robert, [https://ift.tt/3c5t4D8 "The Case for Genocide in North Korea"], ''The Korea Herald,'' 8 February 2012.</ref>

====Equatorial Guinea====
[[Francisco Macías Nguema]] was the first [[President of Equatorial Guinea]], from 1968 until his overthrow in 1979.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> During his presidency, his country was nicknamed "the [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] of Africa". Nguema's regime was characterized by its abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; he acted as chief judge and sentenced thousands to death. This led to the death or exile of up to 1/3 of the country's population. From a population of 300,000, an estimated 80,000 had been killed, in particular those of the [[Bubi people|Bubi]] ethnic minority on [[Bioko]] associated with relative wealth and education.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Uneasy around educated people, he had killed everyone who wore spectacles. All schools were ordered closed in 1975. The economy collapsed and skilled citizens and foreigners emigrated.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

On 3 August 1979, he was [[1979 Equatorial Guinea coup d'état|overthrown]] by his nephew [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Macías Nguema was captured and tried for genocide and other crimes along with 10 others. All were found guilty, four received terms of imprisonment and Nguema and the other six were executed on 29 September.<ref>John B. Quigley (2006) ''The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis'', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, .
<!-- * --></ref>

John B. Quigley noted at Macías Nguema's trial that Equatorial Guinea had not ratified the Genocide convention and that records of the court proceedings show that there was some confusion over whether Nguema and his co-defendants were tried under the laws of Spain (the former colonial government) or whether the trial was justified on the claim that the Genocide Convention was part of customary international law. Quigley stated, "The Macias case stands out as the most confusing of domestic genocide prosecutions from the standpoint of the applicable law. The Macias conviction is also problematic from the standpoint of the identity of the protected group."<ref>John B. Quigley (2006) ''The Genocide Convention: An International Law Analysis'', Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, . </ref>

====Indonesia====

=====Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66=====

In the mid-1960s, hundreds of thousands of [[Left-wing politics|leftists]] and others who were tied to the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) were massacred by the Indonesian military and right-wing paramilitary groups after a failed coup attempt which was blamed on the Communists. At least 500,000 people were killed over a period of several months, and thousands more were interned in prisons and concentration camps under extremely inhumane conditions.<ref name="GellatelyKiernan">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="Blumenthal80">Mark Aarons (2007). "[https://ift.tt/3p6lpIa Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide]." In David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds). ''[https://ift.tt/39TA3MF The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law).]'' [[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]. p.&nbsp;[https://ift.tt/3a02ZTd 80].</ref> The violence culminated in the fall of President [[Sukarno]] and the commencement of [[Suharto]]'s [[New Order (Indonesia)|thirty-year authoritarian rule]]. Some scholars have described the killings as genocide,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> including Robert Cribb, Jess Melvin and [[Joshua Oppenheimer]].<ref>Robert Cribb (2004). "[https://ift.tt/39TUvNn The Indonesian Genocide of 1965–1966]." In [[Samuel Totten]] (ed). ''Teaching about Genocide: Approaches, and Resources''. [[Information Age Publishing]], pp. 133–43. </ref><ref>Joshua Oppenheimer. [https://ift.tt/2pzGgHF Suharto’s Purge, Indonesia’s Silence]. ''The New York Times.'' 29 September 2015.</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

According to scholars and a 2016 international tribunal held in the Hague, Western powers, including Great Britain, Australia and [[CIA activities in Indonesia#Anti-communist purge|the United States]], aided and abetted the mass killings.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Kai Thaler (2 December 2015). [https://ift.tt/1XIkP3b 50 years ago today, American diplomats endorsed mass killings in Indonesia. Here’s what that means for today.] ''[[The Washington Post]].'' Retrieved 2 December 2015.</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> U.S. Embassy officials provided kill lists to the Indonesian military which contained the names of 5,000 suspected high-ranking members of the PKI.<ref name="Kadane">[https://ift.tt/2ac3pdm Ex-agents say CIA compiled death lists for Indonesians] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) ''San Francisco Examiner'', 20 May 1990. Retrieved 8 September 2015.</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="LA Times">[https://ift.tt/3iDlC3a U.S. Seeks to Keep Lid on Far East Purge Role]. ''The Associated Press'' via ''The Los Angeles Times'', 28 July 2001. Retrieved 8 September 2015.</ref><ref>Bellamy, Alex J. (2012). ''Massacres and Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity.'' [[Oxford University Press]]. . [https://ift.tt/3a0pyqG p. 210.]</ref><ref name="Blumenthal81">Mark Aarons (2007). "[https://ift.tt/3p6lpIa Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide]." In David A. Blumenthal and Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds). ''[https://ift.tt/39TA3MF The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law).]'' [[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]. p.&nbsp;[https://ift.tt/364Zeui 81].</ref> Many of those accused of being Communists were journalists, trade union leaders and intellectuals.<ref name="Oppenheimer">[https://ift.tt/1IAki60 "The Look of Silence": Will New Film Force U.S. to Acknowledge Role in 1965 Indonesian Genocide?] ''[[Democracy Now!]]'' 3 August 2015.</ref>

Methods of killing included beheading, evisceration, dismemberment and castration.<ref>Michael Atkinson (16 July 2015). [https://ift.tt/1IHhPLN A Quiet Return to the Killing Fields of Indonesia]. ''[[In These Times]].'' Retrieved 3 August 2015.</ref> A top-secret CIA report stated that the massacres "rank as one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century, along with the Soviet purges of the 1930s, the Nazi mass murders during the Second World War, and the Maoist bloodbath of the early 1950s."<ref name="Blumenthal81"/>

=====West New Guinea/West Papua=====

An estimated 100,000+ [[Papuan languages|Papuans]] have died since Indonesia took control of [[West New Guinea]] from the Dutch Government in 1963.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="WestPapuaFinal">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> An academic report alleged that "contemporary evidence set out [in this report] suggests that the Indonesian government has committed proscribed acts with the intent to destroy the West Papuans as such, in violation of the 1948 [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] and the customary international law prohibition this Convention embodies."<ref name="WestPapuaFinal"/>

=====East Timor=====

[[File:Re-enactment Santa Cruz massacre.jpg|thumb|A re-enactment of the [[Santa Cruz massacre]], November 1998]]
[[East Timor]] was [[Indonesian invasion of East Timor|invaded]] by Indonesia on 7 December 1975 [[Indonesian occupation of East Timor|and it remained under Indonesian occupation]] as an annexed territory with provincial status until it [[1999 East Timorese independence referendum|gained its independence from Indonesia in 1999]]. A detailed statistical report which was prepared for the [[Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor]] cited a lower range of 102,800 conflict-related deaths in the period from 1974–1999, namely, approximately 18,600 killings and 84,200 excess deaths which were caused by hunger and illness, including deaths which were caused by the Indonesian military's use of "starvation as a weapon to exterminate the East Timorese",<ref name="SPowell">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> most of which occurred during the Indonesian occupation.<ref name="SPowell"/><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Earlier estimates of the number of people who died during the occupation ranged from 60,000 to 200,000.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

According to Sian Powell, a UN report confirmed that the Indonesian military used [[starvation]] as a weapon and employed [[Napalm]] and [[chemical warfare|chemical weapons]], which poisoned the food and water supply.<ref name="SPowell"/> Ben Kiernan wrote:

<blockquote>the crimes committed ... in East Timor, with a toll of 150,000 in a population of 650,000, clearly meet a range of sociological definitions of genocide ...[with] both political and ethnic groups as possible victims of genocide. The victims in East Timor included not only that substantial 'part' of the Timorese 'national group' targeted for destruction because of their resistance to Indonesian annexation...but also most members of the twenty-thousand strong ethnic Chinese minority.<ref name="Kiernam">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)<br>See Kiernan's footnotes on pp. 174–75: "clearly meet a range of sociological definitions of genocide..." – Leo Kuper, ''Genocide'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1981)</ref></blockquote>

====Philippines (Marcos dictatorship)====

Many [[Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship|human rights violations]] were committed under the [[conjugal dictatorship]] of [[Ferdinand Marcos|Ferdinand]] and [[Imelda Marcos]], including genocide, especially the genocide of the Islamic [[Moro people]] who live in [[Mindanao|the south]].<ref name="gmanetwork.com">https://ift.tt/3974obo> These ethnically-based massacres included the [[Palimbang massacre]],<ref name="rappler.com">https://ift.tt/39e9HWF> the [[Bingcul massacre]],<ref name="rappler.com"/> and the [[Jabidah massacre]], which triggered the Islamic [[Moro conflict]] which continues to the present day.<ref name="Timeline"></ref><ref name="sfof"></ref><ref name="gmanetwork.com"/>

====Bangladesh====

=====Biharis=====

Immediately after the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Bangladesh independence war of 1971]], those Biharis who were still living in Bangladesh were accused of being "pro-Pakistani" "traitors" by the Bengalis, and an estimated 1,000 to 150,000 Biharis were killed by Bengali mobs in what has been described as a "Retributive Genocide".<ref name="Fink2010"></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[Mukti Bahini]] has been accused of crimes against minority Biharis by the Government of Pakistan. According to a white paper released by the Pakistani government, the Awami League killed 30,000 Biharis and West Pakistanis. Bengali mobs were often armed, sometimes with machetes and bamboo staffs.<ref>Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. p. 231. .</ref> 300 Biharis were killed by Bengali mobs in Chittagong. The massacre was used by the Pakistani Army as a justification to launch [[Operation Searchlight]] against the Bengali nationalist movement.<ref>D'Costa, Bina (2010). Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 103. .</ref> Biharis were massacred in Jessore, Panchabibi and Khulna (where, in March 1972, 300 to 1,000 Biharis were killed and their bodies were thrown into a nearby river).<ref>Gerlach, Christian (2010). Extremely Violent Societies: Mass Violence in the Twentieth-Century World (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. .</ref><ref>Bennett Jones, Owen (2003). Pakistan: Eye of the Storm (2nd revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 171. .</ref><ref>"Massacre of Biharis in Bangladesh". The Age. 15 March 1972. Retrieved 4 June 2013.</ref> Having generated unrest among Bengalis,<ref>Siddiqi, Abdul Rahman (2005). East Pakistan: The Endgame: An Onlooker's Journal 1969–1971. Oxford University Press. p. 171. .</ref> Biharis became the target of retaliation. The Minorities at Risk project puts the number of Biharis killed during the war at 1,000;<ref>"Chronology for Biharis in Bangladesh". The Minorities at Risk (MAR) Project. Retrieved 27 March 2013.</ref> however, R.J. Rummel cites a "likely" figure of 150,000.<ref>"Statistics Of Pakistan'S Democide". Hawaii.edu. Retrieved 31 July 2013.</ref>

=====Indigenous Chakmas=====

In [[Bangladesh]], the persecution of the indigenous tribes of the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] such as the [[Chakma people|Chakma]], [[Marma people|Marma]], [[Tripuri people|Tripura]] and others, who are mainly [[Buddhists]], has been described as genocidal. There are also accusations of Chakmas being forced to leave their religion, many of them children who have been abducted for this purpose. The conflict started soon after Bangladeshi independence in 1971, when the Constitution imposed [[Bengali language|Bengali]] as the only sole language and a military coup happened in 1975. Subsequently, the government encouraged and sponsored the massive settlement of Bangladeshis in the region, which changed the indigenous population's demographics from 98 percent in 1971 to fifty percent by 2000. The Bangladeshi government sent one third of its military forces to the region to support the settlers, sparking a protracted guerilla war between Hill tribes and the military. During this conflict, which officially ended in 1997, and during the subsequent period, a large number of human rights violations against the indigenous peoples have been reported, with violence against indigenous women being particularly extreme.

Bengali soldiers and some fundamentalists settlers were also accused of raping native [[Jumma people|Jumma]] (Chakma) women "with impunity", with the Bangladeshi security forces doing little or nothing to protect the Jummas and instead assisting the rapists and settlers.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

Although Bangladesh is an officially secular country,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> the events leading up to East Pakistan's secession amounted to religious and ethnic genocide.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====Laos====
By 1975, as a result of the collapse of [[South Vietnam]] at the end of the [[Vietnam War]] and the loss of American support, the [[Pathet Lao]] was able to take control of the Laotian government in December of that year, abolish the [[Kingdom of Laos|constitutional monarchy]] which controlled it and establish a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] state which is called the [[Laos|Lao People's Democratic Republic]]. [[Hmong people]], especially those Hmong who had fought against the Pathet Lao, were singled out for retribution. Of those Hmong people who remained in Laos, over 30,000 were sent to re-education camps as political prisoners where they served indeterminate, sometimes life sentences. Enduring hard physical labor and difficult living conditions, many Hmong people died.<ref>[https://ift.tt/2KExsgS The Hmong: An Introduction to their History and Culture] </ref> Thousands of other Hmong people, mainly former soldiers and their families, escaped to remote mountain regions - particularly to [[Phou Bia]], the highest (and thus the least accessible) mountain peak in Laos. At first, these loosely organized groups staged attacks against the [[Pathet Lao]] and Vietnamese troops. Other groups remained in hiding in order to avoid conflict. Initial military successes by these small bands led to military counter-attacks by government forces, including [[Aerial bombing of cities|aerial bombing]] raids and the use of heavy [[artillery]], as well as the use of [[defoliant]]s and [[chemical weapon]]s.<ref>Minority Policies and the Hmong in Laos(Published in Stuart-Fox, M. ed. Contemporary Laos: Studies in the Politics and Society of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (St.Lucia: Queensland University Press, 1982), pp. 199 - 219)</ref>
Vang Pobzeb estimates that 300,000 Hmong and Lao people have been killed by the Vietnamese and Laotian governments since 1975 and he calls these killings a [[genocide]].<ref></ref> Today, most Hmong people in Laos live peacefully in villages and cities, but small groups of Hmong people, many of them second or third generation descendants of former CIA soldiers, remain internally displaced in remote parts of Laos, in fear of government reprisals. As recently as 2003, there were reports of sporadic attacks by these groups, but journalists who have visited their secret camps in recent years have described the people who live in them as being hungry, sick, and lacking weapons except Vietnam War-era rifles.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Despite posing no military threat, the Laotian government has continued to characterize these people as "bandits" and it continues to attack their positions, using [[rape]] as a weapon and often killing and injuring women and children.<ref></ref> Most of the casualties occur while people are gathering food from the jungle, because the establishment of permanent settlements is not possible.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====Argentina====
[[File:Acto recuperación de La Perla (Córdoba)-24MAR07-Autor Martín Gaitán(4).jpg|thumb|Commemoration in Argentina]]
In September 2006, [[Miguel Etchecolatz|Miguel Osvaldo Etchecolatz]], who had been the police commissioner of the province of [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires]] during the [[Dirty War]] (1976–1983), was found guilty of six counts of murder, six counts of unlawful imprisonment and seven counts of [[torture]] in a federal court. The judge who presided over the case, Carlos Rozanski, described the offences as part of a systematic attack that was intended to destroy parts of society that the victims represented and as such was genocide. Rozanski noted that CPPCG does not include the elimination of political groups (because that group was removed at the behest of Stalin), but instead based his findings on 11 December 1946 [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 96]] barring acts of genocide "when racial, religious, political and other groups have been destroyed, entirely or in part" (which passed unanimously), because he considered the original UN definition to be more legitimate than the politically compromised CPPCG definition.<ref name="Klein-100-102">Naomi Klein. ''The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism'', Macmillan, 2007 . </ref>

====Ethiopia====
[[Ethiopia]]'s former Soviet-backed Marxist dictator [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] was tried in an Ethiopian court, ''[[trial in absentia|in absentia]]'', for his role in mass killings. Mengistu's charge sheet and evidence list covered 8,000 pages. The evidence against him included signed execution orders, videos of torture sessions and personal testimonies.<ref name="Ethiopian Dictator">[https://ift.tt/3ogSCzC Ethiopian Dictator Sentenced to Prison] by Les Neuhaus, [[The Associated Press]], 11 January 2007</ref> The trial began in 1994 and on 12 December 2006 Mengistu was found guilty of genocide and other offences. He was sentenced to life in prison in January 2007.<ref name="BBC-2007-01-11">[https://ift.tt/39bovoW Mengistu is handed life sentence] [[BBC]], 11 January 2007</ref><ref name="Mengistu found guilty">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Ethiopian law includes attempts to annihilate political groups in its definition of genocide.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>
106 [[Derg]] officials were accused of genocide during the trials, but only 36 of them were present. Several former Derg members have been sentenced to death.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[Zimbabwe]] refused to respond to Ethiopia's extradition request for Mengistu, which permitted him to avoid a life sentence. Mengistu supported [[Robert Mugabe]], the former long-standing President of Zimbabwe, during his leadership of Ethiopia.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

Michael Clough, a US attorney and longtime Ethiopia observer, told [[Voice of America]] in a statement released on 13 December 2006,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>
<blockquote>The biggest problem with prosecuting Mengistu for genocide is that his actions did not necessarily target a particular group. They were directed against anybody who was opposing his government, and they were generally much more political than based on any ethnic targeting. In contrast, the irony is the Ethiopian government itself has been accused of genocide based on atrocities committed in Gambella. I'm not sure that they qualify as genocide either. But in Gambella, the incidents, which were well documented in a human rights report of about 2 years ago, were clearly directed at a particular group, the tribal group, the [[Anuak people|Anuak]].</blockquote>

An estimated 150,000 university students, intellectuals and politicians were killed during Mengistu's rule.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[Amnesty International]] estimates that up to 500,000 people were killed during the [[Red Terror (Ethiopia)|Ethiopian Red Terror]]<ref>[https://ift.tt/3sOtnI6 ''The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World''] by Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, p. 457
* [https://ift.tt/2ASrUbu US admits helping Mengistu escape] [[BBC]], 22 December 1999
* ''Talk of the Devil: Encounters with Seven Dictators'' by Riccardo Orizio, p. 151</ref> [[Human Rights Watch]] described the Red Terror as "one of the most systematic uses of [[mass murder#Mass murder by a state|mass murder by a state]] ever witnessed in Africa".<ref name="Ethiopian Dictator" /> During his reign it was not uncommon to see students, suspected government critics or rebel sympathisers hanging from lampposts. Mengistu himself is alleged to have murdered opponents by garroting or shooting them, saying that he was leading by example.<ref name="Red Terror">[https://ift.tt/3qLcRXy Guilty of genocide: the leader who unleashed a 'Red Terror' on Africa] by Jonathan Clayton, [[The Times|The Times Online]], 13 December 2006</ref>

====Uganda====
=====Idi Amin's regime=====
After [[Idi Amin Dada]] overthrew the regime of [[Milton Obote]] in 1971, he declared the [[Acholi people|Acholi]] and [[Lango people|Lango]] tribes enemies, as Obote was a Lango and he saw the fact that they dominated the army as a threat.<ref name="Ugandagenocide"></ref> In January 1972, Amin issued an order to the Ugandan army ordering that they assemble and kill all Acholi or Lango soldiers, and then commanded that all Acholi and Lango be rounded up and confined within army barracks, where they were either slaughtered by the soldiers or killed when the Ugandan air force bombed the barracks.<ref name="Ugandagenocide"></ref>

=====Bush War (1981-1985)=====
The genocide under Amin would later lead to reprisals by [[Milton Obote]]'s regime during the [[Ugandan Bush War]], resulting in widespread human rights abuses which primarily targeted the [[Baganda]] people.<ref name="Ugandagenocide"></ref> These abuses included the forced removal of 750,000 civilians from the area of the then Luweero District, including present-day Kiboga, Kyankwanzi, Nakaseke, and others. They were moved into refugee camps controlled by the military. Many civilians outside the camps, in what came to be known as the "Luweero triangle", were continuously abused as "guerrilla sympathizers". The International Committee of the Red Cross has estimated that by July 1985, the Obote regime had been responsible for more than 300,000 civilian deaths across Uganda.<ref>Ofcansky, Thomas P. (1999). Uganda : tarnished pearl of Africa. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. p. 55. . OCLC 174221322.</ref><ref>Seftel, Adam, ed. (2010) [1st pub. 1994]. Uganda: The Bloodstained Pearl of Africa and Its Struggle for Peace. From the Pages of Drum. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. .
"Uganda: Obote's Dimming Prospects" (PDF). Langley, Virginia: Central Intelligence Agency. 2012 [1st pub. 1984]. https://ift.tt/2NtGvCu pp. 265–267.</ref>

==== Ba'athist Iraq ====



===== Genocide of Kurds =====

On 23 December 2005, a Dutch court delivered its ruling in a case which was brought against [[Frans van Anraat]], who had previously supplied chemicals to Iraq. The court ruled that "[it] thinks and considers it legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets the requirement under the genocide convention as an ethnic group. The court has no other conclusion than that these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy the Kurdish population of Iraq." Because van Anraat supplied the chemicals before 16 March 1988, the date of the [[Halabja poison gas attack]] he was guilty of a war crime but not guilty of [[complicity in genocide]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

===== Genocide of Marsh Arabs =====

The water diversion plan for the [[Draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes]] was accompanied by a series of [[propaganda]] articles by the Iraqi regime which were directed against the [[Marsh Arabs|Ma'dan]],<ref name="fisk">[[Robert Fisk]], ''The Great War for Civilisation'', Harper, London 2005, p. 844</ref> and the [[wetlands]] were systematically converted into a [[desert]], forcing the residents out of their settlements in the region. The western [[Hammar Marshes]] and the Qurnah or [[Central Marshes]] became completely desiccated, while the eastern [[Hawizeh Marshes (Iraq/Iran)|Hawizeh Marshes]] dramatically shrank. Furthermore, villages in the marshes were attacked and burnt down and there were reports of the water being deliberately poisoned.<ref name="unep2">,[https://ift.tt/1SoIkZz The Mesopotamian Marshlands: Demise of an Ecosystem] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) [[UNEP]], p. 44</ref>

The majority of the [[Marsh Arabs|Maʻdān]] were either displaced to areas which were adjacent to the drained marshes, abandoning their traditional lifestyle in favour of conventional agriculture, or they were displaced to towns and camps which were located in other areas of Iraq. An estimated 80,000 to 120,000 of them fled to refugee camps in [[Iran]].<ref name="Marsh">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[Marsh Arabs|The Marsh Arabs]], who numbered about half a million in the 1950s, have dwindled to as few as 20,000 in Iraq. Only 1,600 of them were estimated to still be living on traditional ''dibins'' by 2003.<ref name="Colep13">Cole, p. 13</ref>

Besides the general UN-imposed [[Gulf war sanctions]], there was no specific legal recourse for those people who were displaced by the drainage projects, nor was there prosecution of those who were involved in them. Article 2.c of the [[Genocide Convention]] (to which Iraq had acceded in 1951<ref></ref>) forbids "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part." Additionally, the [[Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868|Saint Petersburg Declaration]] says that "the only legitimate object which States should endeavour to accomplish during war is to weaken the military forces of the enemy", a provision potentially violated by the Ba'athist government as part of their campaign against the insurgents which had taken refuge in the marshlands.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====People's Republic of China====


=====Tibet=====

On 5 June 1959 Shri Purshottam Trikamdas, Senior Advocate, [[Supreme Court of India]], presented a report on Tibet to the [[International Commission of Jurists]] (an NGO). The press conference address on the report states in paragraph 26:

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The report of the [[International Commission of Jurists]] (1960) claimed that there was only "cultural" genocide. ICJ Report (1960) page 346: "The committee found that acts of genocide had been committed in Tibet in an attempt to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group, and that such acts are acts of genocide independently of any conventional obligation. The committee did not find that there was sufficient proof of the destruction of Tibetans as a race, nation or ethnic group as such by methods that can be regarded as genocide in international law."

However, cultural genocide is also contested by academics such as [[Barry Sautman]].<ref name="Sautman">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] is the everyday language of the Tibetan people.<ref name="GoldsteinSiebenschuh1997">
* Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

The [[Central Tibetan Administration]] and other Tibetans who work in the exile media have claimed that approximately 1.2&nbsp;million Tibetans have died of [[starvation]], violence, or other indirect causes since 1950.<ref>[https://ift.tt/364Z9Xw CTA: Chinese Government Covering Up Dark Facts<!-- Bot generated title -->]
* [https://ift.tt/3oew1TX BBC News – Tibet country profile – Overview<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> White states that "In all, over one million Tibetans, a fifth of Tibet's total population, had died as a result of the Chinese occupation right up until the end of the [[Cultural Revolution]]."<ref name="White2002"></ref> This figure has been refuted by Patrick French, the former Director of the Free Tibet Campaign in London.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

Jones argued that the [[struggle session]]s which were held after the crushing of the [[1959 Tibetan uprising]] may be considered genocide, based on the claim that the conflict resulted in 92,000 deaths. However, according to tibetologist [[Tom Grunfeld]], "the veracity of such a claim is difficult to verify."<ref name="Grunfeld1996"></ref>

In 2013, Spain's top criminal court decided to hear a case which was brought before it by Tibetan rights activists who alleged that [[Chinese Communist Party]]'s former [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary]] [[Hu Jintao]] had committed genocide in Tibet.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Spain's High Court dropped this case in June 2014.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

=====Xinjiang re-education camps=====


Since 2017, [[Xinjiang re-education camps|re-education camps]] have been established in [[Xinjiang]] by [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP General Secretary]] [[Xi Jinping]]'s [[Xi Jinping Administration|administration]] and since their establishment, they have been controlled by [[Party Committee Secretary|CCP committee secretary]], [[Chen Quanguo]]. These camps are reportedly operated outside the [[Legal system of China|legal system]]; many [[Uyghurs]] have reportedly been interned [[Arrest without warrant|without trial]] and no charges have been levied against them.

====Brazil====

The [[Helmet Massacre]] of the [[Tikuna people]] which occurred in 1988 was initially labeled a [[homicide]]. During the massacre four people died, nineteen were wounded, and ten disappeared. Since 1994 Brazilian courts have labeled the episode a genocide. Thirteen men were convicted of genocide in 2001. In November 2004, after an appeal was filed before Brazil's federal court, the man initially found guilty of hiring men to carry out the genocide was acquitted, and the killers had their initial sentences of 15–25 years reduced to 12 years.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

In November 2005, during an investigation which was code-named [[Operation Rio Pardo]], Mario Lucio Avelar, a Brazilian public prosecutor in [[Cuiabá]], told [[Survival International]] that he believed that there were sufficient grounds to prosecute the perpetrators of the genocide of the [[Rio Pardo Indians]]. In November 2006 twenty-nine people were arrested and others were implicated, such as a former police commander and the governor of [[Mato Grosso]] state.<ref>[[Eamonn McCann]]. [https://ift.tt/3qKWI4t Longing for a saviour] [[Belfast Telegraph]], 24 May 2007
* [https://ift.tt/3oew2qZ Top officials accused of genocide of Indians], [[Survival International]], 13 December 2005</ref>

In 2006 the Brazilian Supreme Federal Court (STF) unanimously reaffirmed its ruling that the crime which is known as the [[Haximu massacre]] (perpetrated against the [[Yanomami]] Indians in 1993)<ref name="SI-1786">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> was a genocide and ruled that the decision of a federal court to sentence miners to 19 years in prison for genocide in connection with other offenses, such as smuggling and illegal mining, was valid.<ref name="SI-1786"/><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====Zimbabwe====
The [[Gukurahundi]] was a series of massacres of [[Northern Ndebele people|Ndebele]] civilians which were carried out by the [[Zimbabwe National Army]] from early 1983 to late 1987. Its name is derived from a [[Shona language]] term which reads "the early rain which washes away the [[chaff]] before the spring rains" when it is loosely translated into English.<ref name="watch">Nyarota, Geoffrey. ''Against the Grain''. Page 134.</ref> During the [[Rhodesian Bush War]] two rival nationalist parties, [[Robert Mugabe]]'s [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU) and [[Joshua Nkomo]]'s [[Zimbabwe African People's Union]] (ZAPU), had emerged in order to challenge [[Rhodesia]]'s predominantly white government.<ref name="zimstudy"></ref> ZANU initially defined ''Gukurahundi'' as an ideological strategy which was aimed at carrying the war into major settlements and individual homesteads.<ref name="Bob"></ref> Following Mugabe's ascension to power, his government remained threatened by "dissidents" – disgruntled former guerrillas and supporters of ZAPU.<ref name="CCJP"></ref> ZANU mainly recruited from the majority [[Shona people]], whereas ZAPU received its greatest amount of support among the minority Ndebele. In early 1983, the North Korean-trained [[Zimbabwean Fifth Brigade|Fifth Brigade]], an [[infantry]] [[Brigade (military)|brigade]] of the [[Zimbabwe National Army]] (ZNA), launched a crackdown against dissidents in [[Matabeleland North Province]], a homeland of the Ndebele. Over the following two years, thousands of Ndebele were either detained by government forces and marched to re-education camps or they were summarily executed. Although there are different estimates, the consensus of the [[International Association of Genocide Scholars]] (IAGS) is that more than 20,000 people were killed. The IAGS has classified the massacres as a genocide.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====Post-Soviet Afghanistan====


=====Massacres of Hazaras and other groups by the Taliban=====

Between 1996 and 2001, 15 massacre campaigns were committed by the [[Taliban]] and [[Al-Qaeda]]; the [[United Nations]] stated: "These are the same type of war crimes as were committed in [[Bosnian genocide|Bosnia]] and should be prosecuted in international courts"<ref name="Newsday 2001">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Following the 1997 massacre of 3,000 Taliban prisoners by [[Abdul Malik Pahlawan]] in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> (which the Hazaras did not commit<ref name="shariffethnickilling">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>) thousands of Hazara men and boys were massacred by other Taliban members in the same city in August 1998.<ref></ref> After the attack, Mullah Niazi, the commander of the attack and the new governor of Mazar, declared from several mosques in the city in separate speeches:
<blockquote>Last year you rebelled against us and killed us. From all your homes you shot at us. Now we are here to deal with you. (...)<br />[[Hazaras]] are not [[Muslim]], they are [[Shia Islam|Shia]]. They are ''[[kafir|kofr]]'' ([[infidel]]s). The Hazaras killed our force here, and now we have to kill Hazaras. (...)<br />If you do not show your loyalty, we will burn your houses, and we will kill you. You either accept to be Muslims or leave Afghanistan. (...)<br />[W]herever you [Hazaras] go we will catch you. If you go up, we will pull you down by your feet; if you hide below, we will pull you up by your hair. (...)<br />If anyone is hiding Hazaras in his house he too will be taken away. What [Hizb-i] Wahdat and the Hazaras did to the Talibs, we did worse...as many as they killed, we killed more.<ref name = "hrw.org-Niazi">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref></blockquote>In these killings 2,000<ref name="hrwmazarmassa"></ref><ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> to 5,000,<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> or perhaps up to 20,000<ref name=SHARIFFMASSACRE></ref> Hazara were systematically executed across the city.<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/><ref name=SHARIFFMASSACRE/> Niamatullah Ibrahimi described the killings as "an act of genocide at full ferocity."<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The Taliban searched for combat age males by conducting door to door searches of Hazara households,<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> shooting them and slitting their throats right in front of their families.<ref name="shariffethnickilling"/> [[Human rights]] organizations reported that the dead were lying on the streets for weeks before the Taliban allowed their burial due to stench and fear of epidemics. There were also reports of [[Hazaras|Hazara]] women being abducted and kept as [[Sexual slavery|sex slaves]].<ref name="hrwmazarmassa"/> The [[Hazara people|Hazara]] claim the [[Taliban]] executed 15,000 of their people in their campaign through northern and central Afghanistan.;<ref name="bamiyanmassacre">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> the United Nation investigated three mass graves allegedly containing the victims in 2002.<ref name="bamiyanmassacre"/> The persecution of Hazaras has been called [[genocide]] by media outlets.<ref name="gierhazar">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====Democratic Republic of the Congo====
During the [[Second Congo War|Congo Civil War]] (1998–2003), [[pygmies]] were hunted down and eaten by both sides in the conflict, who regarded them as subhuman.<ref name=Timesonline>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of [[Mbuti]] pygmies, asked the [[UN Security Council]] to recognize [[cannibalism]] as both a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.<ref></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Minority Rights Group International reported evidence of mass killings, cannibalism and rape. The report, which labeled these events as a campaign of extermination, linked the violence to beliefs about special powers held by the Bambuti.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> In [[Ituri district]], rebel forces ran an operation code-named "[[Effacer le tableau]]" (to wipe the slate clean). The aim of the operation, according to witnesses, was to rid the forest of pygmies.<ref><br>
Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

=====Hutus=====
[[File:Ntrama Church Altar.jpg|thumb|Over 5,000 people who were seeking refuge in the [[Ntarama Genocide Memorial Centre|Ntarama church]] were killed by grenade, machete or rifle, or they were burnt alive.]]

In 2010 a report accused [[Rwanda]]'s [[Tutsi]]-led army of committing genocide against ethnic Hutus. The report accused the [[Rwandan Army]] and allied Congolese rebels of killing tens of thousands of ethnic [[Hutu]] refugees from Rwanda and locals in systematic attacks which were committed between 1996 and 1997. The government of Rwanda rejected the accusation.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)<br>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====Somalia====
=====1988–1991 Isaaq genocide=====

The Isaaq genocide or "(Sometimes referred to as the Hargeisa Holocaust)"<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> was the systematic, state-sponsored massacre of [[Isaaq]] civilians between 1988 and 1991 by the [[Somali Democratic Republic]] under the dictatorship of [[Siad Barre]].<ref name="Mburu">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> A number of genocide scholars (including [[Israel Charny]],<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[Gregory Stanton]],<ref></ref> Deborah Mayersen,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and [[Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)|Adam Jones]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>) as well as international media outlets, such as ''[[The Guardian]]'',<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]''<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and [[Al Jazeera]]<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> among others, have referred to the case as one of genocide. In 2001, the [[United Nations]] commissioned an investigation on past human rights violations in Somalia,<ref name="Mburu" /> specifically to find out if "crimes of international jurisdiction (i.e. war crimes, crimes against humanity or genocide) had been perpetrated during the country's civil war". The investigation was commissioned jointly by the [[United Nations]] Co-ordination Unit (UNCU) and the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]. The investigation concluded with a report confirming the crime of genocide to have taken place against the Isaaqs in Somalia.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

===== 2007 Bantu attacks =====
In 2007 attacks on Somalia's [[Somali Bantu|Bantu population]] and [[Jubba Valley]] dwellers from 1991 onwards were reported, noting that "Somalia is a rare case in which genocidal acts were carried out by militias in the utter absence of a governing state structure."<ref>Catherine L. Besteman, [https://ift.tt/39UJCuO "Genocide in Somalia's Jubba Valley and Somali Bantu Refugees in the U.S"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) 9 April 2007 Accessed 25 January 2011</ref>
<!-- [[WP:NFCC]] violation: [[File:Black July 1983 Colombo.jpg|thumb|240x240px|[[Black July|Black july riots]] in Colombo carried out by Sinhalese mobs against Tamils after allegedly being incited by political groups after the [[Four Four Bravo]] ambush]] -->

====Chechnya====
[[File:Fosse commune de Saadi-Kotar.jpg|thumb|A Russian soldier stands by a mass grave of Chechens in Komsomolskoye, 2000]]


Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, [[Chechnya]] declared its independence from the [[Russian Federation]]. Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] refused to accept Chechnya's independence; subsequently, the conflict between Chechnya and the Russian Federation escalated until it reached its climax when Russian troops invaded Chechnya and launched the [[First Chechen War]] in December 1994, and in September 1999, they invaded Chechnya again and launched the [[Second Chechen War]]. By 2009, Chechen resistance was crushed and the war ended with Russia retaking control of Chechnya. Numerous [[war crime]]s were committed during both conflicts.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[Amnesty International]] estimated that in the First Chechen War alone, between 20,000 and 30,000 Chechens were killed, mostly in indiscriminate attacks which were launched against them by Russian forces in densely populated areas.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

Some scholars estimated that the Russian government's brutal attacks against such a small ethnic group amounted to a crime of genocide.<ref></ref><ref></ref> The German-based NGO [[Society for Threatened Peoples]] accused the Russian authorities of genocide in its 2005 report on Chechnya.<ref>Sarah Reinke: ''Schleichender Völkermord in Tschetschenien. Verschwindenlassen – ethnische Verfolgung in Russland – Scheitern der internationalen Politik.'' Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker, 2005, p. 8 ([https://ift.tt/3abFve3 PDF] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2))</ref>

====Sri Lanka====


=====Tamil genocide=====

The [[Sri Lankan military]] was accused of committing [[International human rights law|human rights]] violations during [[Sri Lanka]]'s 26-year [[Sri Lankan Civil War|civil war]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
* Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> A [[Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka|United Nation's Panel of Experts]] looking into these alleged violations found "credible allegations, which if proven, indicate that serious violations of international humanitarian law and international human rights law were committed by both the Government of Sri Lanka and the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]], some of which would amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Some activists and politicians also accused the [[Sri Lankan government]] which is dominated by [[Sinhalese people]] (who predominantly practice [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] of carrying out a genocide against the minority [[Sri Lankan Tamil people]], who are mostly [[Hinduism|Hindu]], both during and after the war.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

[[Bruce Fein]] alleged that Sri Lanka's leaders committed genocide,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> along with Tamil Parliamentarian [[Suresh Premachandran]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)<br>
Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Refugees who escaped from Sri Lanka also stated that they fled from genocide,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and various [[Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora]] groups echoed these accusations.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

In 2009, thousands of Tamils protested against the atrocities in cities all over the world. (See [[2009 Tamil diaspora protests]].)<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
* Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Various diaspora activists formed a group called [[Tamils Against Genocide]] to continue the protest.<ref></ref> Legal action against Sri Lankan leaders for alleged genocide has been initiated. Norwegian human rights lawyer [[Harald Stabell]] filed a case in Norwegian courts against Sri Lankan President [[Mahinda Rajapaksa|Rajapaksa]] and other officials.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
* </ref>

Politicians in the Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]] also made accusations of genocide.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
* Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> In 2008 and 2009 the [[List of Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu|Chief Minister]] of Tamil Nadu [[M. Karunanidhi]] repeatedly appealed to the [[Indian government]] to intervene to "stop the genocide of Tamils",<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
* Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)
* Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> while his successor [[J. Jayalalithaa]] called on the Indian government to bring Rajapaksa before international courts for genocide.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> [[National Federation of Indian Women|The women's wing]] of the [[Communist Party of India]], passed a resolution in August 2012 finding that "Systematic sexual violence against Tamil women" by Sri Lankan forces constituted genocide, calling for an "independent international investigation".<ref></ref>

In January 2010, a [[Permanent Peoples' Tribunal]] (PPT) held in [[Dublin]], Ireland, found Sri Lanka guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, but it found insufficient evidence to justify the charge of genocide.<ref name=PTSL></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The tribunal requested a thorough investigation as some of the evidence indicated "possible acts of genocide".<ref name=PTSL/> Its panel found Sri Lanka guilty of genocide at its 7–10 December 2013 hearings in Berman, Germany. It also found that the US and UK were guilty of complicity. A decision on whether India, and other states, had also acted in complicity was withheld. PPT reported that LTTE could not be accurately characterized as "terrorist", stating that movements classified as "terrorist" because of their rebellion against a state, can become political entities recognized by the international community.<ref></ref><ref></ref> The [[International Commission of Jurists]] stated that the [[Sri Lankan IDP camps|camps]] used to [[Internment|intern]] nearly 300,000 Tamils after the war's end may have breached the [[Genocide Convention|convention against genocide]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

In 2015, Sri Lanka's Tamil majority [[Northern Provincial Council|Northern Provincial Council (NPC)]] "passed a strongly worded resolution accusing successive governments in the island nation of committing 'genocide' against Tamils".
<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The [[2015 Northern Province Council resolution on genocide of Tamils|resolution]] asserts that "Tamils across Sri Lanka, particularly in the historical Tamil homeland of the NorthEast, have been subject to gross and systematic human rights violations, culminating in the mass atrocities committed in 2009. Sri Lanka's historic violations include over 60 years of state sponsored anti-Tamil pogroms, massacres, sexual violence, and acts of cultural and linguistic destruction perpetrated by the state. These atrocities have been perpetrated with the intent to destroy the Tamil people, and therefore constitute genocide."<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

The Sri Lankan government denied the allegations of genocide and war crimes.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

=====Easter bombings=====

On 21 April 2019, [[Easter]] Sunday, three churches in [[Sri Lanka]] and three luxury hotels in the commercial capital, [[Colombo]], were targeted in a series of coordinated Islamic [[Terrorism|terrorist]] suicide bombings. Later that day, there were smaller explosions at a housing complex in [[Dematagoda]] and a guest house in [[Dehiwala]]. A total of 267 people were killed,<ref name="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/11/sri-lanka-election-observers-report-poll-day-violations-191116095400943.html">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="asiatimes20191209">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> including at least 45 foreign nationals,<ref name="ndtv.com"></ref> three police officers, and eight bombers, and at least 500 were injured.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name= cnn-21apr2019>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>|name=numInjured}} The church bombings were carried out during [[Easter]] [[Mass (liturgy)|services]] in [[Negombo]], [[Batticaloa]] and Colombo; the hotels that were bombed were the [[Shangri-La Hotel, Colombo|Shangri-La]], [[Cinnamon Grand Hotel|Cinnamon Grand]], [[The Kingsbury|Kingsbury]] and [[Tropical Inn]].Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="multiple blasts">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="guardian-20apr2019">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>|name=hotels}} According to the [[State Intelligence Service (Sri Lanka)|State Intelligence Service]], a second wave of attacks was planned, but was stopped as a result of government raids.<ref name="DM319"></ref> Numerous world leaders expressed condolences and condemnation.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Australia,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Bangladesh,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Brazil,<ref></ref> Brunei,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Bulgaria,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Cambodia,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Canada,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> China,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Denmark,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Finland,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> the Holy See,<ref name="VaticanNewsWatkins2019">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Hungary,<ref></ref> India,<ref name="ndtv"></ref> Indonesia,<ref></ref> Iran,<ref></ref> Israel,<ref name=israelaid>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Italy,<ref></ref> Japan,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Laos,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Lebanon,<ref></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Malaysia,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Morocco,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> New Zealand,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Pakistan,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Palestine,<ref></ref><ref></ref> the Philippines,<ref></ref> Poland,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Portugal,<ref></ref> Romania,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Russia,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Saudi Arabia,<ref></ref> Serbia,<ref></ref> Singapore,<ref></ref> Slovakia,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> South Korea,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Thailand,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> the United Arab Emirates,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> the United States,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Venezuela,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and Vietnam.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>|name=|group=}} [[President of the European Parliament]] [[Antonio Tajani]] referred to the bombings as an act of genocide.<ref name="Tajani Tweet"></ref><ref></ref>

====Myanmar====
[[File:Rohingya refugees entering Bangladesh after being driven out of Myanmar, 2017.JPG|thumb|325px|Rohingya refugees entering Bangladesh after being driven out of [[Myanmar]], 2017]]



[[Myanmar]]'s government has been accused of crimes against the Muslim [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] minority that are alleged to amount to genocide. It has been alleged that Rohingya are the primary targets of [[hate crime]]s and discrimination which amounts to genocide and the genocide is being fueled against them by extremist nationalist Buddhist monks and [[Thein Sein]]'s government. Muslim groups have claimed that they were subjected to genocide, torture, arbitrary detention, and cruel, [[inhuman or degrading treatment|inhuman, and degrading treatment]].<ref></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

On 25 August 2017, the Myanmar military forces and local [[Buddhism and violence|Buddhist extremists]] started attacking the [[Rohingya people]] and committing atrocities against them in the country's north-west [[Rakhine State]]. The atrocities included attacks on Rohingya people and locations, looting and burning down Rohingya villages, mass killing of Rohingya civilians, [[gang rape]]s, and other sexual violence.

Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) estimated in December 2017 that during the persecution, the military and the local Buddhists killed at least 10,000 Rohingya people.<ref name=ABC-10000>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref></ref> At least 392 Rohingya villages in Rakhine state were reported as burned down and destroyed,<ref name="OHCHR"></ref> as well as the looting of many Rohingya houses,<ref name=Reuters-Investigates-Massacre>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and widespread gang rapes and other forms of sexual violence against the Rohingya Muslim women and girls.<ref name=TheIndependent-Rape>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=DailyStar-Rape>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=NYT-Rape>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The military drive also displaced a large number of Rohingya people and made them refugees. According to the United Nations reports, , over 700,000 Rohingya people had fled or had been driven out of Rakhine state who then took shelter in the neighboring [[Bangladesh]] as refugees. In December 2017, two Reuters journalists who had been covering the [[Inn Din massacre]] event were arrested and imprisoned.

The 2017 persecution against the Rohingya Muslims and non-Muslims has been termed as [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[genocide]] by various [[United Nations]] agencies, [[International Criminal Court]] officials, human rights groups, and governments.<ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref></ref><ref name="Burma-Mass-Destruction">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> British prime minister [[Theresa May]] and [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Rex Tillerson]] called it "ethnic cleansing" while the [[President of France|French President]] [[Emmanuel Macron]] described the situation as "genocide".<ref name=Independent-Downing-Street>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=USSD-Tillerson>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=SBSNews-Macron>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The United Nations described the persecution as "a textbook example of ethnic cleansing". In late September that year, a seven-member panel of the [[Permanent Peoples' Tribunal]] found the Myanmar military and the Myanmar authority guilty of the crime of genocide against the Rohingya and the [[Kachin people|Kachin]] [[minority group]]s.<ref name=PPT-Straits-Times>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=PPT-Daily-Star>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The Myanmar leader and [[State Counsellor of Myanmar|State Counsellor]] [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] was again criticized for her silence over the issue and for supporting the military actions.<ref name="rohingya_have_fled_2017_09_08_ny_times">Ramzy, Austin, [https://ift.tt/2KE6XrR "270,000 Rohingya Have Fled Myanmar, U.N. Says"], 8 September 2017, [[New York Times]] retrieved 9 September 2017</ref> Subsequently, in November 2017, the governments of [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] signed a deal to facilitate the return of Rohingya refugees to their native [[Rakhine state]] within two months, drawing a mixed response from international onlookers.<ref name=BBC2017-11-23a>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

In August 2018, the office of the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]], reporting the findings of their investigation into the August–September 2017 events, declared that the Myanmar military—the [[Tatmadaw]], and several of its commanders (including Commander-in-chief Senior General [[Min Aung Hlaing]])—should face charges in the [[International Criminal Court]] for "[[crimes against humanity]]", including acts of "ethnic cleansing" and "genocide," particularly for the August–September 2017 attacks on the Rohingya.<ref name="un_report_A_HRC_39_64_ohchcr_2018_08_27">[https://ift.tt/397e59A Human rights situations that require the Council’s attention: ''Report of the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar,''] (Advance Unedited Version: English) 24 August 2018, [[United Nations]], [[Human Rights Council]], 39th session, 10–28 September 2018, Agenda item 4, retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="un_calls_2018_08_27_reuters">[https://ift.tt/2P5oHcj "U.N. calls for Myanmar generals to be tried for genocide, blames Facebook for incitement,"] 27 August 2018, [[Reuters News Service]], retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="military_leaders_must_face_2018_08_27_bbc">[https://ift.tt/2Pbj0d3 "Myanmar Rohingya: UN says military leaders must face genocide charges,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[BBC News]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="investigators_call_2018_08_27_cbs_news">[https://ift.tt/2wixHUv "Investigators call for genocide prosecutions over slaughter of Rohingyas,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[CBS News]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="myanmar_generals_2018_08_27_reuters_us_news">[https://ift.tt/2oeDvdi "Myanmar Generals Had 'Genocidal Intent' Against Rohingya, Must Face Justice: U.N.,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[U.S. News]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref><ref name="year_after_rohingya_massacres_2018_08_27_ny_times">[https://ift.tt/2PANeah "Year After Rohingya Massacres, Top Generals Unrepentant and Unpunished,"] 27 August 2018, ''[[New York Times]]'', retrieved 28 August 2018</ref>

==== South Sudan ====

During the [[South Sudanese Civil War]] there were ethnic undertones to the conflict between the [[South Sudan People's Defence Forces]] and the [[Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition]], which has been accused of being dominated by the [[Dinka]] ethnic group. A Dinka lobbying group known as the "Jieng Council of Elders" was often accused of being behind hardline SPLM policies.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> While the army used to attract men who were members of different tribes, during the war, a large number of the SPLA's soldiers were from the [[Dinka people|Dinka]] stronghold of [[Bahr el Ghazal (region of South Sudan)|Bahr el Ghazal]],<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and within the country the army was often referred to as "the Dinka army".<ref name=bbcnews0317/> Much of the worst atrocities committed are blamed on a group known as "Dot Ke Beny" (Rescue the President) or "[[Mathiang Anyoor]]" (Brown caterpillar), while the SPLA claim that it is just another battalion.<ref name=africanarguments>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=bbcnews0317>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Immediately after the alleged coup in 2013, Dinka troops, and particularly Mathiang Anyoor,<ref name="africanarguments"/><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> were accused of carrying out pogroms, assisted by guides, in house to house searches of Nuer suburbs,<ref name="hrw.org">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> while similar door to door searches of Nuers were reported in government held Malakal.<ref></ref> About 240 Nuer men were killed at a police station in Juba's Gudele neighborhood.<ref name="theguardian.com">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="massethnic">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> During the [[#Renewed conflict and rebel infighting|fighting in 2016-17]] in the Upper Nile region between the SPLA and the SPLA-IO allied Upper Nile faction of Uliny, Shilluk in [[Wau Shilluk]] were forced from their homes and Yasmin Sooka, chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, claimed that the government was engaging in "social engineering" after it transported 2,000 mostly Dinka people to the abandoned areas.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The king of the [[Shilluk Kingdom]], Kwongo Dak Padiet, claimed his people were at risk of physical and cultural extinction.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> In the Equatoria region, Dinka soldiers were accused of targeting civilians on ethnic lines against the dozens of ethnic groups among the Equatorians, with much of the atrocities being blamed on [[Mathiang Anyoor]].<ref name=bbcnews0317/> [[Adama Dieng]], the U.N.'s Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, warned of [[genocide]] after visiting areas of fighting in [[Yei River State|Yei]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Khalid Boutros of the Cobra faction as well as officials of the Murle led [[Boma State]] accuse the SPLA of aiding attacks by Dinka from Jonglei state against Boma state,<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and soldiers from Jonglei captured Kotchar in Boma in 2017.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> In 2010, [[Dennis C. Blair|Dennis Blair]], the United States [[Director of National Intelligence]], issued a warning that "over the next five years,...a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."<ref name=Abramowitz>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=aljazeera></ref> In April 2017, [[Priti Patel]], the [[Secretary of State for International Development|Secretary]] of the United Kingdom's [[Department for International Development]], declared the violence in South Sudan as genocide.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

====ISIL====


ISIL compels people who live in the areas that it controls to live according to its interpretation of [[Sharia|sharia law]].<ref name="McCoyTop">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="Bulos">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> There have been many reports of the group's use of [[death threat]]s, torture and mutilation in order to compel people to convert to Islam,<ref name="McCoyTop" /><ref name="Bulos" /> and reports of clerics being killed for refusing to pledge allegiance to the so-called "Islamic State".<ref name=Zarocostas-clerics /> ISIL directs violence against [[Shia Islam|Shia]] Muslims, [[Alawites]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]], [[Chaldean Christians|Chaldean]], [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] and [[Armenians|Armenian]] Christians, [[Yazidi]]s, [[Druze]], [[Shabaks]] and [[Mandeans]] in particular.<ref name="Christian">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Among the known killings of religious and minority group civilians carried out by ISIL are those in the villages and towns of [[Quiniyeh]] (70–90 Yazidis killed), [[Hardan (Iraq)|Hardan]] (60 Yazidis killed), [[Sinjar massacre|Sinjar]] (500–2,000 Yazidis killed), Ramadi Jabal (60–70 Yazidis killed), Dhola (50 Yazidis killed), Khana Sor (100 Yazidis killed), Hardan area (250–300 Yazidis killed), al-Shimal (dozens of Yazidis killed), Khocho (400 Yazidis killed and 1,000 abducted), Jadala (14 Yazidis killed)<ref name="OHRCHR/UNAMI"></ref> and Beshir (700 Shia Turkmen killed),<ref name="cnsnews.com">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> and others committed near Mosul (670 Shia inmates of the Badush prison killed),<ref name="cnsnews.com" /> and in [[Tal Afar]] prison, Iraq (200 Yazidis killed for refusing conversion).<ref name="OHRCHR/UNAMI" /> The UN estimated that 5,000 Yazidis were killed by ISIL during the takeover of parts of northern Iraq in August 2014.Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) In late May 2014, 150 Kurdish boys from [[Kobani]] aged 14–16 were abducted and subjected to torture and abuse, according to Human Rights Watch.<ref name=AP-Kurds>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> In the Syrian towns of Ghraneij, Abu Haman and Kashkiyeh 700 members of the Sunni [[Al-Shaitat]] tribe were killed for attempting an uprising against ISIL control.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> The UN reported that in June 2014 ISIL had killed a number of Sunni Islamic clerics who refused to pledge allegiance to it.<ref name=Zarocostas-clerics>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> By 2014, a U.N. Humans Rights commission counted that 9,347<ref></ref> civilians had been murdered by ISIL in Iraq, then however; by 2016 a second report by the United Nations estimated 18,802<ref></ref> deaths.
The [[Sinjar massacre]] in 2014 resulted in the killings of between 2,000<ref name="CNN7Aug">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name=NY6-8-14>George Packer, [https://ift.tt/2z6pwLV "A Friend Flees the Horror of ISIS"] Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2) ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 6 August 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2015</ref> and 5,000<ref name="5,000 Kurdish Yazidis executed by ISIL">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> civilians.

====Yemen====


The [[Saudi Arabia]]n- and [[United Arab Emirates]]-led coalition which is fighting in Yemen has been accused of carrying out a "genocide".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref><ref name="yemen"/> U.S. Congresswoman [[Tulsi Gabbard]] said: "The United States’ support for Saudi Arabia's genocidal war in Yemen, with no authorization from Congress, has resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of Yemeni civilians."<ref name="yemen">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>

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