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[[File:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|The International Space Station, representing the collaboration of multiple nations in the exploration of space.]]
Science diplomacy and space, or Space diplomacy refers to the integration of the collaboration of the knowledge, technology, and legislation involved in [[science diplomacy]] with the expanded exploration of space. As diplomatic relationships are integral to the mitigation of various health, scientific, natural or technological issues across nations, space diplomacy is a growing field in which various nations can come to a consensus on what is fair when it comes to the exploration and [[Commercial use of space|commercialization of space travel]]<ref name=":0"></ref>. Space travel is a necessary resource for people around the world, especially when considering the use of satellites in areas like research or [[Telecommunication|telecommunications]]<ref name=":0" />. With the human exploration of space, there are growing issues, such as environmental concerns and pollution or the [[Space tourism|monopolization of space travel]]. Science diplomacy in the area of space allows for such concerns to be taken into account, as country officials, scientists, environmental activists, and private corporations can come together and allow for both national and private space exploration to prosper in countries around the world.
== International Space Law ==
=== Established International Laws and Regulations for Space ===
Current international regulations for space travel have been set by the [[Outer Space Treaty]] of 1967, which governs that space exploration and the use of celestial bodies remain used for “peaceful purposes” and for scientific research, as established in Resolution 2222 (XXI)<ref name=":4"></ref>. The treaty states that no country will be able to achieve sovereign control on regions of space<ref name=":1">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. Consequently, the treaty requires that the use of space should be carried out as a resource of all people<ref></ref>. [[Space law]] itself is relatively new as a branch of international law, encompassing the need to designate the access and freedom to explore space<ref name=":1" />. Especially with the establishment of the [[United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space|Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space]] (COPUOS) in 1959, participating countries within the [[United Nations]] have worked throughout the years to establish [[Space law|five main international treaties]] to regulate further human expansion into space<ref name=":1" />. These treaties include the [[Rescue Agreement|rescue agreement]], [[Space Liability Convention|the international liability for damage]], [[Registration Convention|the registrations of whatever is sent into space]], and the [[Moon Treaty|moon agreement]], which regulates the activities done on celestial bodies<ref></ref>. Other agreements aside from the main five also were also established in efforts to avoid the use of military weapons of mass destruction in space, such as the, the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty|Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963]], which bans the testing of nuclear based weapons on domains such as space, water, and the atmosphere<ref></ref>.
=== Rising Pressure to Reform Space Law Treaties and Principles ===
As the [[Outer Space Treaty]] was signed in 1967 as a consequence of the [[Space Race|space race]] between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]]<ref name=":2">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>, continuous updates to the international agreement to space accounts for the great expansion of space travel in the past 20 years<ref name=":3">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. In 2020 alone, there have been 114 global attempts at orbital launches, of those 104 were successful<ref></ref>. The “[[Billionaire space race|NewSpace]]” sector of private industry, which refers to the civilian space activities funded by companies such as [[SpaceX]], has been an increasingly competitive entity in the exploration and commercialization of space travel. Representing a contemporaneous space race, the growing network of [[Private spaceflight|privatized space flight]] requires legislation that would facilitate the union between both the public and private sectors of space travel and research across nations<ref name=":3" />. Coupled with orbital and suborbital launches across the world, there is a growing need to reform the established legislation set by the [[United Nations]]<ref name=":2" />. Another consideration for law reformation is the increase in space [[Graveyard orbit|trash and debris]] as a result of international orbital launches and exploration<ref name=":5">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>.
The [[Outer Space Treaty]] and other principles of space law bans the use or testing of weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear warheads, including in stations in the Earth's orbit<ref name=":4" />. Yet, it is still possible for a nation to participate in [[Militarisation of space|space military activities]], such as the launching of a nuclear missile through space<ref name=":5" />. Aside from [[private spaceflight]] or rover launches in the field of research, nations around the world have recognized the potential to use the domain of space for military defense<ref name=":3" />. For example, the United States and Russia, a couple of the main actors in the current space race, have not signed the [[Moon Treaty|Moon Agreement]]<ref name=":1" />, and so have not agreed to the stipulations of the peaceful treatment of celestial bodies<ref></ref>. Signed under the [[Presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]] in December of 2019, the [[Space force|Space Force]] represents a new branch of the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and served to establish formal military jurisdiction in the Earth's orbit<ref></ref>. The release of the ''2020 Defense Space Strategy'' represents another effort by the United States to expand the national military and defense into space<ref></ref>. Other nations have also been involved in security considerations, such as the effort by the nations within the [[European Union]] to establish its own policies towards space security<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. This collaboration of European countries builds upon current shared policies while prioritizing sustainability and security of space travel.
=== Prevention of the Militarization of Space ===
The members of the UN have been discussing provisions to the [[Outer Space Treaty]] since the 1980s. In 1981, the [[Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space]] was presented by the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN general assembly]] and has been discussed during the Conference on Disarmament as a resolution that reestablishes the principles of peace outlined in the original Outer Space Treaty<ref name=":6">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. However, due to the clash between the priorities of the UN members, discussions for a Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space initiative have never come to full fruition<ref name=":6" />. In 2008, both [[China]] and [[Russia]] drafted and proposed the Prevention of an Arms Race in Space Treaty, which would serve to reaffirm the principles of the Other Space Treaty, while also preventing the [[Militarisation of space|militarization of space]]<ref> Treaties & Regimes NTI|url=https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/proposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty/|access-date=2021-04-21|website=www.nti.org}}</ref>.
== Space Privatization ==
Over the past few decades, the space environment dramatically changed as private companies entered the space exploration domain as opposed to the sector being preserved solely by the government and its space agencies such as NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). Unlike the space race that occurred between the United States and Russia, this new era of the space race is accelerated by the competition of customers. Private companies in many nations have been involved in satellite market for many years and their efforts have paved the way for many entrepreneurs to develop their own vision and contribution to space exploration.
=== Space Privatization in the United States ===
Some examples of private companies in the United States that have contributed to the space industry are SpaceX, Scaled Composites, Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic, Bigelow Aerospace, and so forth. Among these companies, the three most prominent companies involved are SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic. All three competitors are focused on reducing the cost of access to space, through reuse of launchers and spacecraft, making space accessible to people and not just trained astronauts (citation).
==== SpaceX ====
SpaceX was created in 2002 by entrepreneur, engineer, and inventor Elon Musk with the mission of taking humans to Mars and revolutionizing space technology (citation). Within the past couple decade, the company specialized in the manufacture and launch of rockets that directly competed with the United Launch Alliance, the contract holder for the launch of NASA and Department of Defense rocket launches (citation). SpaceX was the first private company to dock a ship at the International Space Station (ISS) with the development of the Falcon 9 launch and Dragon spacecraft (citation). SpaceX designed the Falcon Heavy to not only launch future satellites into space and carry cargo, but to launch people to destinations like the moon, or even Mars (citation). The company’s ability to design a successful orbital transport system with far less capital investment than NASA programs such as the space shuttle gained the interest of the government. Contracting out space program functions to private companies was a way for government space agencies to cut costs and redirect their efforts on other areas.
==== Blue Origin ====
Blue Origin was founded by Amazon’s CEO, Jeff Bezos, in September 2000, with the goal of making space travel more accessible and cheaper through reusable launch systems (citation). Unlike SpaceX, Blue Origin wishes to target the space tourism industry. The company development a vertical launch vehicle, called the New Shepard, that can reach an altitude of 100km and can descend back to Earth by landing vertically (citation). Blue Origin has also created The New Glenn rocket which is a reusable heavy-lift launch vehicle that can carry payload to orbit (citation). Both innovations by Blue Origin demonstrate the competition that is occurring in the private sector. Similar to Elon Musk’s intention with SpaceX, Bezos wishes to make innovations that will allow future generations to inhabit space (citation). Specifically, Blue Origin’s goal is to promote future generations to construct a space station in orbit around Earth, perpetually in motion to produce artificial gravity, where humans would re-create cities, national parks, even famous sites (citation).
==== Virgin Galactic ====
Another competitor in this private sector of space is Virgin Galactic which describes itself as “the world’s first commercial space line” (citation). This space company was founded by Richard Branson, a technology and retail entrepreneur, in 2004 (citation). Virgin Galactic planned to carry six passengers at a time into sub-orbital space and provide them six minutes of weightlessness in the course of a two and a half our flight (citation). The technology differed from SpaceX and Blue Origin in that the launch into space was not from the ground, but from a jet airplane. This ship flies to an altitude of about 18km and releases a smaller, rocket powered spacecraft called SpaceShip Two which is propelled to an altitude of about 100km (citation) . Like SpaceX and Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic wishes to transform the space sector by making space exploration easier for people.
=== International Space Privatization ===
Not only is space privatization becoming prominent in the United States, competition amongst space programs in Russia, Europe, Japan, India, and China has been growing significantly. The European Space Agency was established before the alliance between Russia and US in 1975, following many years of independent aeronautical engineering research by individual nations (citation). Similarly, the Chinese, Japanese and Indian space agencies began in the 1960s (citation). A number of smaller countries including the United Arab Emirates also are participating in the space competition.
China became the third nation to independently launch a human into orbit in 2003 and its capabilities have since grown (citation). China’s visions include sending people to the moon and building a space station as well as creating its own robotic explorer (citation). Meanwhile, India launched its first unmanned mission to Mars in late 2013, and its probe entered Mars’s orbit in September 2014 (citation). Since then, the Indian Space Research Organization has reached an agreement with NASA on subsequent explorations of Mars (citation). China and the United Arab Emirates successfully sent spacecraft to orbit Mars in February 2021, which was when NASA landed its rover there (citation).<references />
Science diplomacy and space, or Space diplomacy refers to the integration of the collaboration of the knowledge, technology, and legislation involved in [[science diplomacy]] with the expanded exploration of space. As diplomatic relationships are integral to the mitigation of various health, scientific, natural or technological issues across nations, space diplomacy is a growing field in which various nations can come to a consensus on what is fair when it comes to the exploration and [[Commercial use of space|commercialization of space travel]]<ref name=":0"></ref>. Space travel is a necessary resource for people around the world, especially when considering the use of satellites in areas like research or [[Telecommunication|telecommunications]]<ref name=":0" />. With the human exploration of space, there are growing issues, such as environmental concerns and pollution or the [[Space tourism|monopolization of space travel]]. Science diplomacy in the area of space allows for such concerns to be taken into account, as country officials, scientists, environmental activists, and private corporations can come together and allow for both national and private space exploration to prosper in countries around the world.
== International Space Law ==
=== Established International Laws and Regulations for Space ===
Current international regulations for space travel have been set by the [[Outer Space Treaty]] of 1967, which governs that space exploration and the use of celestial bodies remain used for “peaceful purposes” and for scientific research, as established in Resolution 2222 (XXI)<ref name=":4"></ref>. The treaty states that no country will be able to achieve sovereign control on regions of space<ref name=":1">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. Consequently, the treaty requires that the use of space should be carried out as a resource of all people<ref></ref>. [[Space law]] itself is relatively new as a branch of international law, encompassing the need to designate the access and freedom to explore space<ref name=":1" />. Especially with the establishment of the [[United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space|Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space]] (COPUOS) in 1959, participating countries within the [[United Nations]] have worked throughout the years to establish [[Space law|five main international treaties]] to regulate further human expansion into space<ref name=":1" />. These treaties include the [[Rescue Agreement|rescue agreement]], [[Space Liability Convention|the international liability for damage]], [[Registration Convention|the registrations of whatever is sent into space]], and the [[Moon Treaty|moon agreement]], which regulates the activities done on celestial bodies<ref></ref>. Other agreements aside from the main five also were also established in efforts to avoid the use of military weapons of mass destruction in space, such as the, the [[Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty|Partial Test Ban Treaty of 1963]], which bans the testing of nuclear based weapons on domains such as space, water, and the atmosphere<ref></ref>.
=== Rising Pressure to Reform Space Law Treaties and Principles ===
As the [[Outer Space Treaty]] was signed in 1967 as a consequence of the [[Space Race|space race]] between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]]<ref name=":2">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>, continuous updates to the international agreement to space accounts for the great expansion of space travel in the past 20 years<ref name=":3">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. In 2020 alone, there have been 114 global attempts at orbital launches, of those 104 were successful<ref></ref>. The “[[Billionaire space race|NewSpace]]” sector of private industry, which refers to the civilian space activities funded by companies such as [[SpaceX]], has been an increasingly competitive entity in the exploration and commercialization of space travel. Representing a contemporaneous space race, the growing network of [[Private spaceflight|privatized space flight]] requires legislation that would facilitate the union between both the public and private sectors of space travel and research across nations<ref name=":3" />. Coupled with orbital and suborbital launches across the world, there is a growing need to reform the established legislation set by the [[United Nations]]<ref name=":2" />. Another consideration for law reformation is the increase in space [[Graveyard orbit|trash and debris]] as a result of international orbital launches and exploration<ref name=":5">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>.
The [[Outer Space Treaty]] and other principles of space law bans the use or testing of weapons of mass destruction, such as nuclear warheads, including in stations in the Earth's orbit<ref name=":4" />. Yet, it is still possible for a nation to participate in [[Militarisation of space|space military activities]], such as the launching of a nuclear missile through space<ref name=":5" />. Aside from [[private spaceflight]] or rover launches in the field of research, nations around the world have recognized the potential to use the domain of space for military defense<ref name=":3" />. For example, the United States and Russia, a couple of the main actors in the current space race, have not signed the [[Moon Treaty|Moon Agreement]]<ref name=":1" />, and so have not agreed to the stipulations of the peaceful treatment of celestial bodies<ref></ref>. Signed under the [[Presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]] in December of 2019, the [[Space force|Space Force]] represents a new branch of the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and served to establish formal military jurisdiction in the Earth's orbit<ref></ref>. The release of the ''2020 Defense Space Strategy'' represents another effort by the United States to expand the national military and defense into space<ref></ref>. Other nations have also been involved in security considerations, such as the effort by the nations within the [[European Union]] to establish its own policies towards space security<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. This collaboration of European countries builds upon current shared policies while prioritizing sustainability and security of space travel.
=== Prevention of the Militarization of Space ===
The members of the UN have been discussing provisions to the [[Outer Space Treaty]] since the 1980s. In 1981, the [[Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space]] was presented by the [[United Nations General Assembly|UN general assembly]] and has been discussed during the Conference on Disarmament as a resolution that reestablishes the principles of peace outlined in the original Outer Space Treaty<ref name=":6">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. However, due to the clash between the priorities of the UN members, discussions for a Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space initiative have never come to full fruition<ref name=":6" />. In 2008, both [[China]] and [[Russia]] drafted and proposed the Prevention of an Arms Race in Space Treaty, which would serve to reaffirm the principles of the Other Space Treaty, while also preventing the [[Militarisation of space|militarization of space]]<ref> Treaties & Regimes NTI|url=https://www.nti.org/learn/treaties-and-regimes/proposed-prevention-arms-race-space-paros-treaty/|access-date=2021-04-21|website=www.nti.org}}</ref>.
== Space Privatization ==
Over the past few decades, the space environment dramatically changed as private companies entered the space exploration domain as opposed to the sector being preserved solely by the government and its space agencies such as NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA). Unlike the space race that occurred between the United States and Russia, this new era of the space race is accelerated by the competition of customers. Private companies in many nations have been involved in satellite market for many years and their efforts have paved the way for many entrepreneurs to develop their own vision and contribution to space exploration.
=== Space Privatization in the United States ===
Some examples of private companies in the United States that have contributed to the space industry are SpaceX, Scaled Composites, Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic, Bigelow Aerospace, and so forth. Among these companies, the three most prominent companies involved are SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Virgin Galactic. All three competitors are focused on reducing the cost of access to space, through reuse of launchers and spacecraft, making space accessible to people and not just trained astronauts (citation).
==== SpaceX ====
SpaceX was created in 2002 by entrepreneur, engineer, and inventor Elon Musk with the mission of taking humans to Mars and revolutionizing space technology (citation). Within the past couple decade, the company specialized in the manufacture and launch of rockets that directly competed with the United Launch Alliance, the contract holder for the launch of NASA and Department of Defense rocket launches (citation). SpaceX was the first private company to dock a ship at the International Space Station (ISS) with the development of the Falcon 9 launch and Dragon spacecraft (citation). SpaceX designed the Falcon Heavy to not only launch future satellites into space and carry cargo, but to launch people to destinations like the moon, or even Mars (citation). The company’s ability to design a successful orbital transport system with far less capital investment than NASA programs such as the space shuttle gained the interest of the government. Contracting out space program functions to private companies was a way for government space agencies to cut costs and redirect their efforts on other areas.
==== Blue Origin ====
Blue Origin was founded by Amazon’s CEO, Jeff Bezos, in September 2000, with the goal of making space travel more accessible and cheaper through reusable launch systems (citation). Unlike SpaceX, Blue Origin wishes to target the space tourism industry. The company development a vertical launch vehicle, called the New Shepard, that can reach an altitude of 100km and can descend back to Earth by landing vertically (citation). Blue Origin has also created The New Glenn rocket which is a reusable heavy-lift launch vehicle that can carry payload to orbit (citation). Both innovations by Blue Origin demonstrate the competition that is occurring in the private sector. Similar to Elon Musk’s intention with SpaceX, Bezos wishes to make innovations that will allow future generations to inhabit space (citation). Specifically, Blue Origin’s goal is to promote future generations to construct a space station in orbit around Earth, perpetually in motion to produce artificial gravity, where humans would re-create cities, national parks, even famous sites (citation).
==== Virgin Galactic ====
Another competitor in this private sector of space is Virgin Galactic which describes itself as “the world’s first commercial space line” (citation). This space company was founded by Richard Branson, a technology and retail entrepreneur, in 2004 (citation). Virgin Galactic planned to carry six passengers at a time into sub-orbital space and provide them six minutes of weightlessness in the course of a two and a half our flight (citation). The technology differed from SpaceX and Blue Origin in that the launch into space was not from the ground, but from a jet airplane. This ship flies to an altitude of about 18km and releases a smaller, rocket powered spacecraft called SpaceShip Two which is propelled to an altitude of about 100km (citation) . Like SpaceX and Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic wishes to transform the space sector by making space exploration easier for people.
=== International Space Privatization ===
Not only is space privatization becoming prominent in the United States, competition amongst space programs in Russia, Europe, Japan, India, and China has been growing significantly. The European Space Agency was established before the alliance between Russia and US in 1975, following many years of independent aeronautical engineering research by individual nations (citation). Similarly, the Chinese, Japanese and Indian space agencies began in the 1960s (citation). A number of smaller countries including the United Arab Emirates also are participating in the space competition.
China became the third nation to independently launch a human into orbit in 2003 and its capabilities have since grown (citation). China’s visions include sending people to the moon and building a space station as well as creating its own robotic explorer (citation). Meanwhile, India launched its first unmanned mission to Mars in late 2013, and its probe entered Mars’s orbit in September 2014 (citation). Since then, the Indian Space Research Organization has reached an agreement with NASA on subsequent explorations of Mars (citation). China and the United Arab Emirates successfully sent spacecraft to orbit Mars in February 2021, which was when NASA landed its rover there (citation).<references />
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