Mbdfar: /* End of the Program */
The '''Cinchona Missions''' (1942-1945) were a string of expeditions led by the [[United States]] to find natural sources of [[quinine]] in [[South America]] during [[World War II]].
==Background==
Bark of species from the genus ''[[Cinchona]]'' produces the alkaloid quinine, a potent anti-[[malarial]] treatment.<ref name=si>https://s.si.edu/2IkEsM9> Although originally native to South America, cinchona plantations were established in [[India]], [[Ceylon]], and the [[Dutch East Indies]] during the 18th century. By 1913, 95 percent of quinine production was controlled by the Dutch through large plantations on [[Java]].<ref name=steere>Steere, W. (1945). The Cinchona-Bark Industry of South America. The Scientific Monthly, 61(2), 114-126. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2XMqyrj>
With the outbreak of [[World War II]], having a supply of quinine was essential for successful military operations. In 1942, the [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies]] cut off the supply of quinine from the [[Allies of World War II|allies]].<ref name=si></ref>
==Cinchona Expeditions==
Realizing a need for a new source of quinine, a program was established by the United States [[Board of Economic Warfare]]<ref>Steere, W. (1945). The Discovery and Distribution of Cinchona pitayensis in Ecuador. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 72(5), 464-471. doi:10.2307/2481477</ref> under the operation of the [[Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation#World_War_II|Defense Supplies Corporation]] (DSC). Professor [[William C. Steere]] was brought on as Assistant Director. The objective was to find supplies of cinchona bark in the [[Andes]] for military use. It had three goals; to control all sites with commercial cinchona for long term development, to develop plantations that could compete with established cinchona monopolies to ensure emergency provisions, and to train people in the producing countries to take over the industry after the end of US involvement. Six countries signed an agreement with the DSC; [[Columbia]], [[Peru]], [[Guatemala]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Bolivia]].<ref name=tcp>Cuvi, N. (2011). The Cinchona Program (1940-1945): Science and imperialism in the exploitation of a medicinal plant. Dynamis, 31(1), 183-206. doi:10.4321/s0211-95362011000100009, Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2IiRNoc> At it's peak, as many as 30 American botanists were involved with the program.<ref name=acs>Smocovitis, Vassiliki B. (May, 2003)
Desperately Seeking Quinine. Modern Drug Discovery, 57-58. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2XLowaM>
===The First Expedition===
The first party left for Colombia in October 1942. It consisted of two foresters, two botanists, a chemist, and a lawyer. This initial group included Steere, [[Francis Raymond Fosberg]], and [[Leslie Holdridge]].<ref name=steere></ref> At first, two field parties were organized. Each team had a botanist to identify cinchona species, as well as a forester to calculate the volume of bark and logistics of harvest.<ref name=tcp></ref> They began their search in the high altitude rainforests of the [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Cordillera Oriental]] and the [[Rio Magdalena]], making an inventory of all available species.<ref name=si></ref> Over the next couple years, more botanists were recruited to assist with this effort, including [[Earl Lemley Core]].<ref name=steere></ref><ref>[[Roy B Clarkson|Clarkson, Roy B.]] and Jesse F. Clovis (1984), “Earl Lemley Core, 1902-1984”, ''Castanea'' 50(1): 1-6.</ref> Once cleared for harvest, bark from an area was gathered through native labor. It was transported on the backs of people or mules to rivers and airstrips. Eventually, it would arrive at one of the field laboratories located in [[Bogotá, Colombia]], [[Quito, Ecuador]], [[Lima, Peru]], or [[La Paz, Bolivia]]. Alternatively, the dry bark was shipped directly to America.<ref name=acs></ref>
===The Cinchona Mission of Ecuador===
In 1943, an expedition to Ecuador was put together by the [[American Quinine Company]], lead by anthropologist [[Froelich Rainey]]. It was later joined by Steere and botanist [[Wendell H. Camp]]. Surveying was met with difficulty, however, as the cinchona forests of Ecuador were often remote and inaccessible. Surveying parties could often range between ten and fifteen men, many of whom served as porters and trail cutters.<ref name=steere></ref> By mid-1943, Ecuador was the second largest producer of cinchona bark in Latin America.<ref name=tcp></ref>
==End of the Program==
In 1944, synthetic quinine was synthesized by American chemists [[Robert Burns Woodward]] and [[William von Eggers Doering]]. This, along with the recovery of Asian plantations and a healthy stockpile of antimalarial products in US control, lead to the termination of the program. Overall, the US imported approximately 40 million pounds of dry bark over the course of two years. The program ceased operations on November 30, 1945.<ref name=tcp></ref>
==References==
==Background==
Bark of species from the genus ''[[Cinchona]]'' produces the alkaloid quinine, a potent anti-[[malarial]] treatment.<ref name=si>https://s.si.edu/2IkEsM9> Although originally native to South America, cinchona plantations were established in [[India]], [[Ceylon]], and the [[Dutch East Indies]] during the 18th century. By 1913, 95 percent of quinine production was controlled by the Dutch through large plantations on [[Java]].<ref name=steere>Steere, W. (1945). The Cinchona-Bark Industry of South America. The Scientific Monthly, 61(2), 114-126. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2XMqyrj>
With the outbreak of [[World War II]], having a supply of quinine was essential for successful military operations. In 1942, the [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies]] cut off the supply of quinine from the [[Allies of World War II|allies]].<ref name=si></ref>
==Cinchona Expeditions==
Realizing a need for a new source of quinine, a program was established by the United States [[Board of Economic Warfare]]<ref>Steere, W. (1945). The Discovery and Distribution of Cinchona pitayensis in Ecuador. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 72(5), 464-471. doi:10.2307/2481477</ref> under the operation of the [[Reconstruction_Finance_Corporation#World_War_II|Defense Supplies Corporation]] (DSC). Professor [[William C. Steere]] was brought on as Assistant Director. The objective was to find supplies of cinchona bark in the [[Andes]] for military use. It had three goals; to control all sites with commercial cinchona for long term development, to develop plantations that could compete with established cinchona monopolies to ensure emergency provisions, and to train people in the producing countries to take over the industry after the end of US involvement. Six countries signed an agreement with the DSC; [[Columbia]], [[Peru]], [[Guatemala]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Bolivia]].<ref name=tcp>Cuvi, N. (2011). The Cinchona Program (1940-1945): Science and imperialism in the exploitation of a medicinal plant. Dynamis, 31(1), 183-206. doi:10.4321/s0211-95362011000100009, Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2IiRNoc> At it's peak, as many as 30 American botanists were involved with the program.<ref name=acs>Smocovitis, Vassiliki B. (May, 2003)
Desperately Seeking Quinine. Modern Drug Discovery, 57-58. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2XLowaM>
===The First Expedition===
The first party left for Colombia in October 1942. It consisted of two foresters, two botanists, a chemist, and a lawyer. This initial group included Steere, [[Francis Raymond Fosberg]], and [[Leslie Holdridge]].<ref name=steere></ref> At first, two field parties were organized. Each team had a botanist to identify cinchona species, as well as a forester to calculate the volume of bark and logistics of harvest.<ref name=tcp></ref> They began their search in the high altitude rainforests of the [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Cordillera Oriental]] and the [[Rio Magdalena]], making an inventory of all available species.<ref name=si></ref> Over the next couple years, more botanists were recruited to assist with this effort, including [[Earl Lemley Core]].<ref name=steere></ref><ref>[[Roy B Clarkson|Clarkson, Roy B.]] and Jesse F. Clovis (1984), “Earl Lemley Core, 1902-1984”, ''Castanea'' 50(1): 1-6.</ref> Once cleared for harvest, bark from an area was gathered through native labor. It was transported on the backs of people or mules to rivers and airstrips. Eventually, it would arrive at one of the field laboratories located in [[Bogotá, Colombia]], [[Quito, Ecuador]], [[Lima, Peru]], or [[La Paz, Bolivia]]. Alternatively, the dry bark was shipped directly to America.<ref name=acs></ref>
===The Cinchona Mission of Ecuador===
In 1943, an expedition to Ecuador was put together by the [[American Quinine Company]], lead by anthropologist [[Froelich Rainey]]. It was later joined by Steere and botanist [[Wendell H. Camp]]. Surveying was met with difficulty, however, as the cinchona forests of Ecuador were often remote and inaccessible. Surveying parties could often range between ten and fifteen men, many of whom served as porters and trail cutters.<ref name=steere></ref> By mid-1943, Ecuador was the second largest producer of cinchona bark in Latin America.<ref name=tcp></ref>
==End of the Program==
In 1944, synthetic quinine was synthesized by American chemists [[Robert Burns Woodward]] and [[William von Eggers Doering]]. This, along with the recovery of Asian plantations and a healthy stockpile of antimalarial products in US control, lead to the termination of the program. Overall, the US imported approximately 40 million pounds of dry bark over the course of two years. The program ceased operations on November 30, 1945.<ref name=tcp></ref>
==References==
from Wikipedia - New pages [en] http://bit.ly/2wT3zyV
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