पाटलिपुत्र: /* Influences in trade and art (3500-3200 BCE) */ palletes
[[File:Mesopotamia-Egypt trade routes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Possible Mesopotamia-Egypt trade routes.<ref name="Redford 22"/>]]
'''Egypt-Mesopotamia relations''' seem to have developped from the 4rd millennium BCE, starting in the [[Uruk period]] for [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Gerzean culture]] of pre-literate [[Prehistoric Egypt]] (circa 3500-3200 BCE).<ref>Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.</ref><ref name="Mitchell"></ref> Influences can be seen in the visual arts of Egypt, in imported products, and also in the possible transfer of writing from Mesopotamia to Egypt.<ref name="Mitchell"/>
==Influences in trade and art (3500-3200 BCE)==
[[File:Mesopotamian king as Master of the Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife dated circa 3300-3200 BCE, Abydos, Egypt. Louvre Museum reference E 11517.jpg|thumb|[[Mesopotamia]]n king as [[Master of Animals]] on the [[Gebel el-Arak Knife]], dated circa 3300-3200 BC, [[Abydos]], [[Egypt]]. [[Louvre Museum]], reference E 11517. This work of art both shows the influence of Mesopotamia on [[Egypt]] at an early date, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during the [[Uruk period]].<ref></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>]]
Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts of Asia. Objects such as the [[Gebel el-Arak Knife|Gebel el-Arak knife]] handle, which has patently Mesopotamian relief carvings on it, have been found in Egypt,<ref>Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.</ref> and the silver which appears in this period can only have been obtained from [[Asia Minor]].<ref name="Redford 16">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.</ref>
In addition, Egyptian objects are created which clearly mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly.<ref name="Redford 18">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 18.</ref> Cylinder seals appear in Egypt, as well as recessed paneling architecture, the Egyptian reliefs on cosmetic palettes are clearly made in the same style as the contemporary Mesopotamian [[Uruk culture]], and the ceremonial mace heads which turn up from the late Gerzean and early Semainean are crafted in the Mesopotamian "pear-shaped" style, instead of the Egyptian native style.<ref name="Redford 17">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17.</ref>
The route of this trade is difficult to determine, but contact with [[Canaan]] does not predate the early dynastic, so it is usually assumed to have been by sea trade.<ref name="Redford 22">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22.</ref> During the time when the [[Dynastic Race Theory]] was still popular, it was theorized that Uruk sailors circumnavigated [[Arabia]], but a [[Mediterranean]] route, probably by middlemen through [[Byblos]], is more likely, as evidenced by the presence of [[Byblos|Byblian]] objects in Egypt.<ref name="Redford 22"/>
The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths of [[wadi]]s which lead to the [[Red Sea]] may indicate some amount of trade via the Red Sea (though [[Byblos|Byblian]] trade potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then be taken to the Red Sea).<ref name="Redford 20">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 20.</ref> Also, it is considered unlikely that something as complicated as recessed panel architecture could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and at least a small contingent of migrants is often suspected.<ref name="Redford 22"/>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Egyptian - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42168 - Side B.jpg|Archaic Egyptian [[cylinder Seal]], 3100-2900 BCE
File:Egyptian - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42168.jpg|Archaic Egyptian [[cylinder Seal]], 3100-2900 BCE. Modern impression.
File:Narmer_Palette.jpg|Egyptian palletes, such as the [[Narmer Palette]] (3200-3000 BC), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography.<ref>Wilkinson, Toby A.H. <cite>Early Dynastic Egypt</cite>. p.6, Routledge, London. 1999. .</ref>
</gallery>
====Importance of local Egyptian developments====
While there is clear evidence the [[Naqada II]] culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, the most commonly held view today is that the achievements of the [[First Dynasty]] were the result of a long period of indigenous cultural and political development.<ref>Early Dynastic Egypt (Routledge, 1999), p.15</ref> Such developments are much older than the Naqada II period,<ref>Redford, Donald B., ''Egypt, Israel, and Canaan in Ancient Times'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 13.</ref> the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period,<ref>Gardiner, Alan. ''Egypt of the Pharaohs'' (Oxford: University Press, 1961), p. 392.</ref> and the changes which did happen during the Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time.<ref>Shaw, Ian. and Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 228.</ref>
Although there are many examples of Mesopotamian influence in Egypt in the 4th millenium BCE, the reverse is not true, and there are no traces of Egyptian influence in Mesopotamia at that time.<ref>"Because the reverse is not true, namely there is no trace of an Egyptian presence in Mesopotamia at that time, all seems to point to a flow of ideas from Mesopotamia to Egypt." </ref>
==Development of writing (3500-3200 BCE)==
[[File:Development of writing.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Standard reconstruction of the [[development of writing]], with position of cuneiform.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> There is a possibility that the [[Egyptian script]] was invented independently from the [[Mesopotamian script]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>]]
It is generally thought that that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after [[Sumerian script]], and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter",<ref name=b1>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian [[Mesopotamia]]".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43–44.</ref>
Standard reconstructions of the [[development of writing]] generally place the development of the Summerian [[proto-cuneiform]] script before the development of Egyptian hierogplyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
There is however a lack of direct evidence, and "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Instead, it is pointed out and held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy” and that “a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."<ref>Simson Najovits, ''Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land'', Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55–56.</ref>
Since the 1990s, and discoveries of glyphs at [[Abydos]], dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, challenge the classical notion according to which the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one, although Egyptian writing does make a sudden apparition at that time, while on the contrary Mesopotamia has an evolutionnary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to circa 8000 BCE.<ref name=Mitchell1999>"The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." </ref>
==See also==
*[[Indus-Mesopotamia relations]]
*[[Ancient Egypt]]
==References==
'''Egypt-Mesopotamia relations''' seem to have developped from the 4rd millennium BCE, starting in the [[Uruk period]] for [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Gerzean culture]] of pre-literate [[Prehistoric Egypt]] (circa 3500-3200 BCE).<ref>Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.</ref><ref name="Mitchell"></ref> Influences can be seen in the visual arts of Egypt, in imported products, and also in the possible transfer of writing from Mesopotamia to Egypt.<ref name="Mitchell"/>
==Influences in trade and art (3500-3200 BCE)==
[[File:Mesopotamian king as Master of the Animals on the Gebel el-Arak Knife dated circa 3300-3200 BCE, Abydos, Egypt. Louvre Museum reference E 11517.jpg|thumb|[[Mesopotamia]]n king as [[Master of Animals]] on the [[Gebel el-Arak Knife]], dated circa 3300-3200 BC, [[Abydos]], [[Egypt]]. [[Louvre Museum]], reference E 11517. This work of art both shows the influence of Mesopotamia on [[Egypt]] at an early date, and the state of Mesopotamian royal iconography during the [[Uruk period]].<ref></ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>]]
Distinctly foreign objects and art forms entered Egypt during this period, indicating contacts with several parts of Asia. Objects such as the [[Gebel el-Arak Knife|Gebel el-Arak knife]] handle, which has patently Mesopotamian relief carvings on it, have been found in Egypt,<ref>Shaw, Ian. & Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.</ref> and the silver which appears in this period can only have been obtained from [[Asia Minor]].<ref name="Redford 16">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.</ref>
In addition, Egyptian objects are created which clearly mimic Mesopotamian forms, although not slavishly.<ref name="Redford 18">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 18.</ref> Cylinder seals appear in Egypt, as well as recessed paneling architecture, the Egyptian reliefs on cosmetic palettes are clearly made in the same style as the contemporary Mesopotamian [[Uruk culture]], and the ceremonial mace heads which turn up from the late Gerzean and early Semainean are crafted in the Mesopotamian "pear-shaped" style, instead of the Egyptian native style.<ref name="Redford 17">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17.</ref>
The route of this trade is difficult to determine, but contact with [[Canaan]] does not predate the early dynastic, so it is usually assumed to have been by sea trade.<ref name="Redford 22">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22.</ref> During the time when the [[Dynastic Race Theory]] was still popular, it was theorized that Uruk sailors circumnavigated [[Arabia]], but a [[Mediterranean]] route, probably by middlemen through [[Byblos]], is more likely, as evidenced by the presence of [[Byblos|Byblian]] objects in Egypt.<ref name="Redford 22"/>
The fact that so many Gerzean sites are at the mouths of [[wadi]]s which lead to the [[Red Sea]] may indicate some amount of trade via the Red Sea (though [[Byblos|Byblian]] trade potentially could have crossed the Sinai and then be taken to the Red Sea).<ref name="Redford 20">Redford, Donald B. ''Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times.'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 20.</ref> Also, it is considered unlikely that something as complicated as recessed panel architecture could have worked its way into Egypt by proxy, and at least a small contingent of migrants is often suspected.<ref name="Redford 22"/>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px" perrow="4">
File:Egyptian - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42168 - Side B.jpg|Archaic Egyptian [[cylinder Seal]], 3100-2900 BCE
File:Egyptian - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42168.jpg|Archaic Egyptian [[cylinder Seal]], 3100-2900 BCE. Modern impression.
File:Narmer_Palette.jpg|Egyptian palletes, such as the [[Narmer Palette]] (3200-3000 BC), borrow elements of Mesopotamian iconography.<ref>Wilkinson, Toby A.H. <cite>Early Dynastic Egypt</cite>. p.6, Routledge, London. 1999. .</ref>
</gallery>
====Importance of local Egyptian developments====
While there is clear evidence the [[Naqada II]] culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, the most commonly held view today is that the achievements of the [[First Dynasty]] were the result of a long period of indigenous cultural and political development.<ref>Early Dynastic Egypt (Routledge, 1999), p.15</ref> Such developments are much older than the Naqada II period,<ref>Redford, Donald B., ''Egypt, Israel, and Canaan in Ancient Times'' (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 13.</ref> the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period,<ref>Gardiner, Alan. ''Egypt of the Pharaohs'' (Oxford: University Press, 1961), p. 392.</ref> and the changes which did happen during the Naqada periods happened over significant amounts of time.<ref>Shaw, Ian. and Nicholson, Paul, ''The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt'' (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 228.</ref>
Although there are many examples of Mesopotamian influence in Egypt in the 4th millenium BCE, the reverse is not true, and there are no traces of Egyptian influence in Mesopotamia at that time.<ref>"Because the reverse is not true, namely there is no trace of an Egyptian presence in Mesopotamia at that time, all seems to point to a flow of ideas from Mesopotamia to Egypt." </ref>
==Development of writing (3500-3200 BCE)==
[[File:Development of writing.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Standard reconstruction of the [[development of writing]], with position of cuneiform.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> There is a possibility that the [[Egyptian script]] was invented independently from the [[Mesopotamian script]].<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>]]
It is generally thought that that Egyptian hieroglyphs "came into existence a little after [[Sumerian script]], and, probably [were], invented under the influence of the latter",<ref name=b1>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> and that it is "probable that the general idea of expressing words of a language in writing was brought to Egypt from Sumerian [[Mesopotamia]]".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref><ref>Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, et al., The Cambridge Ancient History (3d ed. 1970) pp. 43–44.</ref>
Standard reconstructions of the [[development of writing]] generally place the development of the Summerian [[proto-cuneiform]] script before the development of Egyptian hierogplyphs, with the suggestion the former influenced the latter.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
There is however a lack of direct evidence, and "no definitive determination has been made as to the origin of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Instead, it is pointed out and held that "the evidence for such direct influence remains flimsy” and that “a very credible argument can also be made for the independent development of writing in Egypt..."<ref>Simson Najovits, ''Egypt, Trunk of the Tree: A Modern Survey of an Ancient Land'', Algora Publishing, 2004, pp. 55–56.</ref>
Since the 1990s, and discoveries of glyphs at [[Abydos]], dated to between 3400 and 3200 BCE, challenge the classical notion according to which the Mesopotamian symbol system predates the Egyptian one, although Egyptian writing does make a sudden apparition at that time, while on the contrary Mesopotamia has an evolutionnary history of sign usage in tokens dating back to circa 8000 BCE.<ref name=Mitchell1999>"The seal impressions, from various tombs, date even further back, to 3400 B.C. These dates challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia." </ref>
==See also==
*[[Indus-Mesopotamia relations]]
*[[Ancient Egypt]]
==References==
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